0 


1 


iiniiiiiil  liiiiiif  ill!  iiiiiiiHiiiiiiiiiiiii 


:hoolh¥siene 


LEO   BURGERSTEIN 


n!H!llRR4^mnf 


m 


lyijliliiiiilii 


■^ 


-;  / 


T^ 


A 


Southern  Branch 
of  the 

University  of  California 

Los  Angeles 


Form  L   I 


-.  '   .1 


STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL 

Wa  ANGEXES,  CAUFORNIA 


JAN6^      0CT5     1921 

^^     ''°^8      1923 
f  ^.   ^^. 

j^^lS      ..  JUL  9     192t 

MAY  1  9  «3» 


NOV  7 1 


SCHOOL  IIVGIENE 


SCHOOL  TTYGTENE 


HY 

LEO  BURCJKRSTEIN,  Ph.D.,  LL.D. 

(Vienna) 

TRANSLATED  BY 

BEATRICE  L.  STEVENSON,  AND 
ANNA  L.  VON  DER  OSTEN 

WITH  43  ILLUSTRATIOXS  AND  DIAGRAMS 


NEW  YORK 

FREDERICK  A.  STOKES  COMPANY 

PUBLISHERS 


Copyright,  1915,  by 
Frederick  A.  Stokes  Company 


All  rights  reserved 


u 


Jiimuiry,  lOlo 


^  n 


INTRODl  CTION  TO  THE  AMERICAN 

EDITION 

The  present  century  is  discovering  that  the  care  of 
ciiiklren  is  the  most  important  thing  in  the  world. 
I"]xcept  in  so  far  as  children  possess  vitality,  integrity 
and  intelligonco,  nothing  is  worth  while.  In  the  past 
our  cities  have  been  l)uilt  as  if  manufacturing  and 
commerce  were  the  great  aims  of  the  world.  The 
discovery  of  childhood  is  the  supreme  achievement 
of  our  da.y.  The  time  is  coming  when  cities  will  be 
built  so  that  children  may  be  well  and  happy,  so  that 
the  treasures  of  past  civilization,  the  precious  inherit- 
ance of  the  achievements  of  the  human  spirit,  shall  be 
passed  on  to  them  most  effectively. 

One  of  the  leaders  in  this  world-reconstructing  view 
is  Professor  Leo  Burgerstein,  who  has  taken  as  his 
special  theme  the  health  of  the  school  child,  realizing 
that  children  in  school  are  kept  in  school  and  under 
school  influence,  most  of  the  hours  of  most  of  the 
days  of  most  of  the  years  of  childhood.  He  says  that 
the  school  must  itself  become  a  health-promoting 
agency,  and  the  school  curriculum  a  means  which 
shall  so  influence  the  children  that  those  who  take 
part  in  it  siuiU  be  better  off  in  lu^alth  and  vigor  than 
those  who  do  not.  The  world  is  inde])ted  to  Professor 
Burgerstein  for  his  scientific  achievement,    for    his 

V 


vi  INTRODUCTION 

breadth    of  scholarship,  as  well  as  for  the  practical 
nature  of  his  teachings. 

This  little  ])ook  will  bring  to  those  American  readers 
who  are  not  already  familiar  with  Professor  Burger- 
stein's  larger  work  in  German,  his  general  point  of 
view  with  reference  to  this  whole  subject  of  the  health 
of  tiie  school  child. 

Luther  H.  Gulick,  M.  D. 
New  York,  October,  1913. 


PKKFACE  TO  THE  TIIlRi)  EDITION 

The  preface  to  the  first  edition  closes  with  the 
words:  ''It  is  difficult  to  set  forth  the  results  of  an 
investigation  in  a  way  so  as  to  be  readily  understood 
by  all.  I  shall  be  happy  if  I  find  that  I  have  succeeded 
in  this  endeavor."  The  rapid  sale  of  the  second, 
extensive  edition  has  shown  that  the  chosen  way  was 
the  right  one. 

In  addition  to  a  change  of  text  and  enlargement  of 
the  index,  the  new  edition  of  this  little  book,  which  has 
won  many  friends  and  received  much  recognition,  has 
been  altered  only  to  include  our  present  knowledge  of 
school  hygiene.  A  few  parts  have  been  omitted,  some 
chapters  have  been  made  more  comprehensive,  and 
new  and  more  instructive  illustrations  have  been 
added.  The  great  increase  in  material  with  no  cor- 
responding increase  in  the  size  or  price  of  the  book  is 
due  to  the  good  management  of  my  publishers,  and  I 
take  this  opportunity  of  expressing  to  them  my  thanks 
for  their  services. 

I  desire  also  to  thank  my  honored  friend,  Mr.  Arthur 
Lieberman  of  Vienna,  for  his  kind  assistance  in  correct- 
ing proofs. 

Leo  Burgerstein,  Ph.  D.,  LL.  D. 
Vienna,  April,  1912. 


vn 


MEASUREMENT  EQUIVALENTS 


1  meter 

1  meter 

1  centimeter 

1  centimeter 

1  millimeter 

1  square  meter     " 

1  square  centimeter 


3 . 3  feet 

1 00  centimeters 

. 39  inch 

10  luilliiiipters 

. 039  inch 

1 . 2  square  yard 

.  1 5  square  inch 


X  degrees  Centigrade   =    (Xxl.8)+  32  =  x  degrees  Fahrenheit 


Vlll 


CONTENTS 

{The  figures  in  pnrenthesiti  refer  to  the  number  of  the  page.) 

Inthoduction  to  the  Amkuican  Edition v 

i'liKi-ACK vii 

I.N'l'UODl'CTlOX XV 

I.  THE  SCTTOOTJIOUSE 
I.  General  Planning  and  Erection 

I'liiiiiiinK  (1) — Site  (2) — Cottage  Plan  of  Schools  (4) — 
Location  of  Schoolhouse  (7)— Water  Supply  (S)— Wells  (S) 
— Driiikin<!;  Fountains  (9) — Construction  (11) — Sciiool- 
house  Entrance  (12) — Waiting  Rooms  (12)— Cloak  Rooms 
(12) — Lavatories  (13) — Indoor  Playgrounds  (14) — Ar- 
rangement of  Rooms  (15) — Ground  Plans  (IG) — Tlie 
.  Classroom  (18). 

2.  Lighting 

Light  Measurement  (19) — Angle  of  Light  (20) — Direction  of 
Light  (23)— Windows  (24)— Curtains  and  Shades  {2r^)— 
Light  Reflectors  (25)— Artificial  Lighting  (20)- DitTused 
Lighting  (27)— Direct  Lighting   (28)— Gas  Lighting  (29) 

3.  Ventilation  and  Heating 

Condition  of  the  Air  (29)— Dust  (32)— Airing  (33)— Venti- 
lation (34)— Heating  (3G)— Stoves  (37)— Gas  Heaters  (38) 
—Steam  Heating  (40) — Hot-water  Heating  (40). 

4.  The  Classroom  and  its  Equipment 

Size  of  Classroom  (42)— Walls  and  Ceiling  (44)— Floor  (44) 
—The   School    Desk    (46)— Adjustable   School    iMiiniture 

ix 


X  CONTENTS 

(49) — Desk  Dimensions  (51) — Movable  Desks  (56)— 
Posture  (58)— Blackboards  (59)— Lavatory  (59)— Ex- 
pectoration Receptacles  (59). 

5.  Other  Rooms,  Grounds,  and  Facilities  of  the  School 

Gj'ninasium  (60) — Plaj^grounds  (61) — School  Gardens  (63) — ■ 
School  Baths  (63) — Swimming  Pools  (65) — Rooms  for 
Domestic  Science  (66)— School  Pcoding  (66) — Toilets 
(67)— Urinals  (71)— School  and  Dwelling  (72)— Cleaning 
(73)— Fire  Regulations  (74). 


11.  THE  HYGIENE  OF  INSTRUCTION 
I.  General  Considerations 

Fatigue  (75) — Constitution  (78) — Defective  Children  (79) — 
Special  Classes  (80)— S('hool  Age  (81)— Co-education  (82.) 

2.  Number  of  Phipils  and  Curriculum 

Number  of  Pupils  (88) — School  Hours  (91) — Carrying  of  Books 
(92) — Inspection  for  Personal  Cleanliness  (94) — Length  of 
Instruction  Periods  (94) — Recesses  (96) — Order  of  Subjects 
(101)— The  One  or  Two-session  Day  (102). 

3.  The  Hygiene  of  Different  School  Subjects 

Reading  (106) — Writing  (109) — Vertical  or  01)liquc  Writing 
(111) — Handwork  (116) — Domestic  Science  (116) — 
Manual  Training  (116) — Gymnastics  and  Flay  (118) — 
Singing   (122). 

4.  Homework,  Examinations,  etc. 

Homework  (123) — Extra  Work  (127) — Examinations  (127 
— Graduation  Examinations  (Reifepriifungen)  (128) — 
Overwork  (130) — Punishments  (131) — Corporal  Punish- 
ment (133) — School  Suicides  (135) — Other  Punishments 
(136)— Vacations    (136)— Summer   Vacation  (137)— Mid- 


IX)NTENTS  xl 

term  Vacations  (138) — Suspension  of  School  on  Warm 
Days  (139) — Vacation  Colonics  or  Camps  (140) — Kxcur- 
sions  in  Vacation  (141)— Recreation  Day  Camps  and 
Open-air  Schools   (141). 

5.  Boarding  Schools 

Open  Air  Hoanlinji;  Scliools  (143). 

III.  INSTRUCTION  IN  HYGIENE 

Hyfriene  in  Training  Schools  (146)— Hygiene  in  Elementary 
Schools  (148)— Hygiene  in  High  Schools  (149)— Alcohol 
(150)— Tobacco  (151)— Sex  Hygiene  (152). 

IV.  SCHOOL    DISEASES   AND    MEDICAL    INSPEC- 
TION OF  SCHOOLS 

Contagious  Di.seases  (154) — Myopia  (Nearsightedness)  (150) 
—Spinal  Curvature  (157)— Sul)n()rmal  Children  (158)— 
The  School  Physician  (159)— School  Nurses  (165)— 
School  Clinics  (166)— Historical  Survey  of  Medical  In- 
spection (167). 

V.  HYGIENE  OF  THE  TliACHlNG  PROFESSION 

Diflicult  Schoolroom  Conditions  and  Nervous  Strain  (173) — 
Overtime   (174) — Consulting  the  School   Physician  (175). 

BlBLIO<JK.\l'HY 176 

Index 178 


ILLUSTRATIONS  AND  DIAGRAMS 

FIG.  PACE 

1.  Pavilion  school  at  Drontheim,  Norway.     Perspec- 

tive        5 

2.  Pavilion  school  at  Drontheim,  Norway.     Ground 

plan 6 

3.  Ground  and  cross  section  of  a  school  unit  at  Dron- 

theim, Norway 6 

4.  A  drinking  fountain  reciuiring  no  cup 10 

5.  Ground  plan  of  a  one-room  Danish  schoolhouse.    .  13 

6.  Plan  of  the  first  floor  in  a  London  public  school 

accommodating  twenty  classes 14 

7.  Ground  plan  of  a  public  school  (thirty-two  classes) 

in  Frankfort,  Germany 15 

8.  A  school  and  its  grounds  at  \'ii-oflay,  France  ...      17 

9.  Photometer  by  Wingen 19 

10.  Pleier's  camera  for  measuring  the  angle  of  light .    .     20 

1 1 .  Photograph  taken  with  the  Pleier  camera  for  meas- 

uring the  angle  of  light 21 

12.  Measuring  the  light  on  the  desk  farthest  from  the 

window 22 

13.  Diffused  lighting  by  Welsbach  lamp 27 

14.  The  Meidinger  stove 35 

15.  Ventilation  by  temperature  differences 36 

16.  The  Meidinger  stove,  inferior  view,  showing  ven- 

tilating system 37 

17.  Steam  heating 39 

18.  Plan  of  a  schoolroom  with  benches  each  accom- 

modating two  pupils 43 

xiii 


xiv         ILLISTKATIOXS  AND  DIAGRAMS 

FIG.  PAGE 

19.  Measuring  rod  'numbered  for  the  various  sizes  of 

desk  forms 48 

20.  :\Ioulthrop  mova]:)le  and  adjustable  school  chair, 

]\Iodel   B,   miumfactured  by  Langslow,   Fowler 
Co.,  Rochester,  X.  Y Facing  page     46 

21.  The  "Princeton"  adjustable  desk  and  chair,  manu- 

factured   by    The    NeAv    Jersey    School-Church 
Furniture  Co.,  Trenton,  N.  J.    .    .    .Facing  page     48 

22.  Adjustal)lc   desk  and  chair,  manufactured  l)y  the 

American  Seating  Company,  Chicago,   111. 

Facing  page  50 

23.  A  desk  designed  by  A.  Lorenz 52 

24.  Distances  between  seat  and  desk 53 

25.  Movable  desk  top  by  Schlimp 54 

26.  A  readily  adjusted  seat  designed  l>y  Schenk    ...  54 

27.  Single  pedestal  desk  combination,   manufactured 

by   Kenney   Bros,    &   Wolkins,    Boston,    Mass. 

Facing  page     54 

28.  Benches  (Urania)  designed  by  Piasecki,  turned  over 

for  cleaning  the  floor Facing  page     56 

29.  Rollers  coupled  together  for  rows  of  benches,  de- 

signed by  Walter 57 

30.  A  schoolroom  in  Geneva  with  three  rows  of  two- 

seated    benches    designed    by    Mauchaiu.     The 
benches    are    placed    on    the    Baudin    rollers 

Facing  page     58 

31.  The  same  room  as  shown  in  Fig.  30.     The  row^s  of 

benches  have  been  moved  close  together,  to  give 

a  large  free  floor  space Facing  page     58 

32.  A  roof  playground   on  a  New  York  City  pubhc 

school  building,  designed  by  Snyder     Facing  page  62 

33.  Location  of  toilets  with  entrances  from  the  corridors  68 

34.  Siphon  closet 69 

35.  A  closet  for  country  schools,  used  in  Maine.    ...  70 


ILLUSTRATIONS  ANO   DIACIiAMS  xv 

,..,„.  .  PAGE 

30.  Two  ways  of  carry ing  l)ooks •^•i 

37.  The  effect  of  recess  periods  on  work  in  aiilliinelic 

and  dictation,  according  to  Friedrich *.»'•• 

38.  Schniid-Monuard's  curves  of  illness  among  pupils 

in  Halle,  Germany 1<" 

39.  Old  English  wr.s».s  Roman  i)rin1 108 

40.  German  t^ersMS  Roman  scrii)t lOS 

4L  Guide  line  for  writing  used  by  Cirollmuss  in  Leipsic  Ho 

42.  Good  and  bad  postures  at  sliopwork 117 

43.  Ergograph  tests  made  by  Keller  of  Wintcrthur, 

Switzerland,  to  determine  the  effect  of  physical 

exercise  on  mental  activity 1-1 


TABLES 


NO. 


PAGK 


I.  A    comparison    of    boys    and    girls   in  secondary 

schools  with  respect  to  illness 83 

11.  Key's  findings  of  chlorosis  and  headache   ....  84 

J II.  Tjaden's  findings  of  anaemia 84 

1\'.  Lindholm's  findings  of  anemia  and  headache  .    .  85 
V.  Excuses  from  physical  training  granted  to  pupils 

of  higher  schools  in  Helsingfors 85 


INTRODUCTION 

^       .  2  7  3  JT  (^ 

It    IS    a    well-known  fact    tluit   the   beginnings   of 

mail}'  modern  activities  can  be  traced  back  thousands 
of  years.  Such  is  tiio  case  with  school  hygiene,  for 
evidence  of  its  existence  has  been  found  as  far  back 
as  the  days  of  Greece.  Even  the  modern  form  of 
school  procedure  is  much  like  that  of  a  far-removed 
age;  the  schoolhouse  of  the  present  with  its  equip- 
ment agrees  in  some  respects  with  the  schoolhouse 
and  equipment  described  by  Furttenbach.*  There 
have  been  times  in  Germany  when  public  opinion 
was  disposed  to  consider  with  in(liff(;rence  a  sound 
physical  development  in  relation  to  school  work. 
Even  to-day,  while  the  teaching  profession  generally 
appreciates  the  importance  of  school  hygiene  from  a 
theoretical  standpoint,  in  actual  practice  we  are  still 
feeling  the  effects  of  the  earher  prejudiced  times,  and 
much  progress  needs  to  be  made.  Nevertheless,  the 
right  of  the  child  is  one  of  the  demands  of  the  times, 
and  this  demand  includes  the  protection  of  the  child's 
health  in  public  institutions. 

As  the  father  of  modern  school  hygiene  we  acknowl- 
edge the  eminent  phj'sician,  Johann  Peter  Frank, 
who,  in  the  second  volume  of  his  great  work,  "  System 
einer    vollstiindigen    medizinischen    Policey,"t    sum- 

*Fi-RTTENBACH.     "  Toutsches  Schul-Gehjiw,"  AuKsburg,  1649. 
fFRANK,  .louANN  Peter.     "System    eincr    vollstiindigen  medizi- 
nischen Policcy,"     Mannheim,  1780. 

xvii 


xviii  INTKODUCTION 

marized  the  meaning  of  school  hygiene.  The  science 
has,  however,  been  broadened  and  made  effective 
only  during  the  past  fifty  years,  when  medical  special- 
ists, in  the  interests  of  scientific  knowledge,  have 
examined  large  numbers  of  school  children  to  deter- 
mine what  distur])ances  of  health  are  traceable  to 
school  life.  In  the  train  of  these  examinations  many 
thorough  investigations  were  taken  up  to  determine 
the  physical  condition  of  school  children  and  the  state 
of  sanitarj'  equipment  of  the  schoolhouse;  and  much 
knowledge  has  been  gained  and  many  hj^gienic  im- 
provements have  been  introduced.  In  comparison 
with  research  in  these  directions,  the  hygiene  of  in- 
struction made  its  appearance  relatively  late,  and  is 
therefore  far  from  being  cleared  up  sufficiently.  The 
demand  for  it  must  come  from  the  schools,  its 
teachers,  and  the  specially  trained  school  physicians. 
The  hygiene  of  the  teaching  profession,  developed 
in  the  spirit  of  modern  scientific  research,  is  like- 
wise only  in  its  infancy. 

Practical  hygiene  so  far  as  it  concerns  all  matters  of 
the  school  will  succeed  only  when  schoolmen  generally, 
teachers,  and  the  pupils  themselves,  understand  the 
rules  of  health.  As  for  the  actual  instruction  in 
hygiene  in  the  school,  the  subject  is  so  comprehensive 
that  it  is  impossible  that  all  teachers  shall  be  experts 
in  this  particular  field;  hence  a  demand  has  gradually 
arisen  for  a  person  especially  trained  in  this  branch 
of  school  work,  namely,  the  school  physician. 

It  is  important  that  the  teaching  profession  take  an 
active  interest  in  school   hygiene;  there  is  no  better 


INTRODUCTION  xix 

way  toward  realizing  the  ideals  of  the  science  or  of 
verifying  the  results  of  research. 

The  fundamental  points  to  ])e  emphas'zed  in  this 
book  have  thus  been  indicated.  Their  discussion, 
which  will  be  concise,  will  include  matters  of  theory 
and  practice  in  various  countries.  It  will  materially 
aid  the  advance  of  the  science  if  teachers  everywhere 
will  accept  the  suggestions  concerning  the  theory  and 
practice  in  other  lands  in  the  sj^irit  in  which  these 
suggestions  are  made,  and  as  an  incentive  to  progress 
in  their  own  schools. 


SCHOOL  HYGIENE 

I 

THE  SCHOOLHOUSE 

1.  General  Planning  and  Erection 

The  problem  of  schocjlhousi'  ijlaiming  differs  from 
the  ordinary  house  planning  in  this  respect  that  al- 
most every  condition  is  altered.  In  a  dwelling  house 
the  place  where  one  sits  to  read  is  near  the  window; 
in  a  schoolroom  even  the  corners  far  removed  from 
the  windows  nmst  be  used  for  this  purpose.  The  very 
moment  the  threshold  of  the  schoolhouse  is  crossed,  the 
difference  is  apparent;  many  feet  passing  over  a  thres- 
hold bring  in  an  unusual  amount  of  dust.  The  school 
stairways,  too,  must  at  times  bear  the  weight  of  crowds, 
and  rooms  which  must  accommodate  many  individuals 
make  proper  ventilation  a  serious  matter.  In  fact,  the 
characteristics  of  the  schoolhouse  serve  to  emphasize 
the  difference  between  it  and  the  dwelling. 

Planning. — In  order  to  avoid  mistakes  which  cannot 
be  remedied  later,  when  the  schoolhouse  is  being 
planned  close  attention  must  be  given  to  the  hygienic 
aspects.  This  requires  careful  study  at  the  outset,  a 
fact  which  has  unfortunately  been  learned  by  experi- 
ence in  those  communities  where  it  has  been  found 
that  an  attractive  appearance  does  not  always  mean 

1 


2  SCHOOL  HYGIENE 

good  plauuhif;  or  suitable  situation.  Rchoolhouse 
planning  (leniands  exports.  In  rural  eoinniunities 
good  model  plans  might  he  edited  by  the  municipal 
authorities.  In  this  way,  even  a  small  community 
could  erect  a  satisfactory  schoolhouse  and  be  stimu- 
lated to  undertake  the  work  because  those  immediately 
interested,  as,  for  in.stance,  busine.ss  men,  could  super- 
intend the  matters  of  planning  and  erection.  It  is,  of 
cotirse,  of  material  help  toward  the  securing  of  good 
schoolhouses  if  the  state  is  able  to  assist  by  subscribing 
loans  without  interest.  Small  and  average-sized  cities 
may  succeed  in  securing  good  plans  by  initiating  a 
building  contest.  The  sketches  submitted  in  the  con- 
test should  be  passed  upon  by  an  expert  in  school 
hygiene.  The  primary  aim  in  all  cases  must  be  to 
secure  ideally  hygienic  conditions  as  far  as  the  finances 
will  permit.  This  necessitj'  must  precede  all  claims 
to  beauty;  jmnem  et  circense^,  not  the  reverse,  should 
be  the  rule.  In  the  larger  cities  the  aim  should  be  a 
comprehensive  study  of  schoolhouse  construction  in 
other  countries  as  well.  This  study  should  include  a 
review  of  the  existing  literature  on  the  suljject,  and 
also  the  personal  observations  of  an  architect  especially 
interested  in  this  branch  of  his  profession. 

Site. — It  must  be  emphasized  again  that  not 
every  building  will  do  for  a  schoolhouse  and  that  the 
schoolhouse  demands  special  construction.  The  choice 
of  a  site  is  important.  The  essentials  are:  quiet, 
air  as  good  as  the  locality  permits,  and  light 
which  is  not  interfered  with  by  adjoining  buildings. 
A  further  essential  is  that  these  conditions  be  assured 
for  the  future.     It  happens  frequently,  especially  in 


THE  SCHOOLHOUSE  3 

siuall  towns,  that  an  otherwise  desirable  schoolhouse 
is  placed  entirely  without  necessity  on  a  thoroughfare, 
merely  because  the  town  is  proud  to  show  it.  Tlie 
noise  and  dust  of  the  thoroughfare  prove  disturbing 
factors.  If  the  l)uilding  must  be  put  on  a  principal 
street,  by  all  means  let  the  corridors  be  on  that  side 
while  the  classrooms  tkice  the  vviiv;  but  a  more  favor- 
able location  should  be  found,  if  possible.  Further- 
more, in  small  places  the  plans  should  be  such  as  to 
atlmit  of  the  addition  of  annexes  or  stories. 

In  rural  districts,  in  order  to  have  a  generally  ac- 
cessibl(>  schoolhouse,  one  must  take  into  account  the 
lay  of  the  land,  the  distribution  of  the  population, 
and  the  state  of  the  roads.  Instead  of  a  separate 
school  for  each  small  village,  it  might  be  desirable  to 
have  one  large  school  for  a  number  of  villages.  The 
pupils  migiit  be  brought  to  the  school  by  conveyances, 
as  is  the  system  in  vogue  in  certain  jiarts  of  the  United 
States,  where  several  of  the  states  have  already  parsed 
legislative  enactment  on  this  point.  It  would  be  most 
helpful,  both  from  the  standpoint  of  hygiene  and  from 
that  of  school  attendance,  if  in  rural  districts  it  were 
possible  during  the  inclement  season  when  the  snow 
lies  deep  and  transit  is  difficult,  to  organize  a  system 
whereby  particularly  the  smaller  children  may  be 
carried  in  conveyances  alternatively  by  the  farmers  to 
and  from  school.  In  the  northern  part  of  Scandi- 
navia, where  the  farms  are  widely  scattered,  it  has 
,  been  found  feasible  to  form  so-called  Wander schulen. 
In  these,  a  number  of  children  are  fully  taken  care  of 
for  a  number  of  weeks,  until  the  teacher  must  move  on 
to  the  next  post. 


4  SCHOOL  HYCJIENE 

When  quiet  and  good  air  are  aimed  at  it  is  well  to 
remember  that  these  conditions  are  not  likety  to  be 
secured  where  school  buildings  are  situated  in  the 
vicinity  of  railway  stations,  near  laundries  where 
chemicals  are  used,  or  near  factories.  It  would  be  a 
distinct  advance  if  this  matter  could  be  controlled  b^^ 
law,  for  instance,  the  prohibition  of  such  establish- 
ments within  a  mile  of  the  schoolhouse. 

Cottage  Plan  of  Schools. — In  large  cities,  a  realiza- 
tion of  these  ideals — quiet,  good  air  and  good  light — 
is  not  easy,  but  the  evils  might  be  minimized  if  the 
municipal  authorities  would  look  ahead  a  few  decades 
in  the  growth  of  their  city  and  restrict  certain  sites  in 
the  suburbs  for  the  use  of  schoolhouses  and  play- 
grounds. In  the  meantime,  such  tracts  of  land  might 
})e  leased  out  for  agricultural  purposes.  Some  large 
cities  have  built  their  schools  on  the  plan  of  one 
schoolhouse  to  so  many  thousand  children,  but  this 
procedure  does  not  always  express  a  wise,  far-sighted 
policy,  for  while  the  proportion  of  school  children  to 
the  total  population  (in  most  countries  from  13  to  20 
percent)  is  known,  in  some  sections,  for  instance 
where  a  factory  is  being  set  up,  the  school  population 
will  increase  out  of  all  proportion  to  the  provisions 
that  have  been  made.  To  meet  such  needs,  large 
school  barracks  must  then  be  constructed  in  haste. 
Such  cheap,  lightly  built  structures,  while  they  some- 
times admirably  relieve  a  temporary  need  and  have 
been  known  to  give  good  service  for  years,  are  not 
to  be  recommended  for  general  use,  and  should 
merely  serve  as  an  emergency  measure  in  large  cities. 
It  may  be  that  from  some  of  the  advantages  of  the 


THE  SCHOOLHOUSE 


5 


s(^ho()l  finrracks  has  originated  the  cottago  plan  of 
school  building,  i.e.,  instead  of  one  large  schoolhouse, 
a  number  of  snuiUer,  separate  units.  The  advantages 
here  are  better  air  and  less  mutual  disturbance;  it  is 
easier  to  clear  the  rooms  in  case  of  fire,  and  the  closing 
at  times  of  epidemics  need  only  concern  one  unit.  On 
the  other  hand,  drawbacks  are  again  met  with  in  the 
tax  put  upon  the  central  heating  sj^stem,  and  if  shower 
baths  are  used  the  danger  in  cold  weather  of  having 


~ — z — ^^ 


I'm.   1. — I'.Hvilion  school  at  Dronthcim,  Norway.     Perspective. 

the  children  pass  after  the  bath  from  one  building  to 
another.  The  comparatively  large  amount  of  space 
required  for  the  pavilion  school  renders  it  not  generally 
practicable  and  for  this  reason  but  few  such  schools 
have  been  erected,  though  they  are  to  be  found  here 
and  there,  especially  since  Beutner  in  Ludwigshafen 
(Germany)  has  supplied  a  model.  Figs.  1  and  2  show 
examples  of  the  Hakonson-Hansen  pavilion  at  Dront- 


6 


SC'HOOT.  IIYCIEXE 


lunni  in  Norway.  The  schoolliouse  is  of  wood, 
centrally  heated  by  steam  and  ventilated  mechanically. 
The    house    in  the  rear  of   Fig.  2  is  the  gymnasium 

STREET 


PLAYGROUND 
FOR  BOYS 


SCHOOL 
UNIT 


.J°L 


SCHOOL 
UNIT 


^^~^ 


PLAYGROUND 
FOR  GIRLS 


SCHOOL 

UNIT 


SCHOOL 

UNIT 


0   5  10 
h-H— I h 


50               TGiD 
H 1 1 1 


Fig.  2. — Pavilion  sihoul  at  Drontheim,  Norway.    Ground  plan. 


0  5 

1  '  '  '  ■  I 


10 

-I- 


30  m 


1 

Fid.  3. — Ground   pltm   and   cross  section  of  a  .school  unit  at 

Drontheim,  Norway. 

where   classes  in    physical    exercise   and  training  for 
sloj'd  work  are  conducted.     Fig.  3  shows  the  ground 


THE  SCHOOLHOUSE  •  7 

plan  and  a  cross  section  of  one  of  the  pavilions,  with 
six  classrooms,  each  acconmioclating  3(5  pupils. 

Points  relating  to  the  size  of  school  plots  will  be 
taken  up  later;  it  is  sufficient  to  say  here  that  the 
grounds  can  never  be  too  large  when  play  spaces  are 
taken  into  consideration.  School  l)uil(lings  should 
never  be  placed  on  sites  formerly  used  as  refuse  dumps, 
on  ground  where  underground  currents  of  water  come 
near  the  surface,  or  in  marshy  places. 

Location  of  Schoolhouse. — A  much  discussed  ques- 
tion is  the  location  of  the  school  buiUling  with  respect 
to  the  point  of  the  compass.  The  great  influence 
that  the  sun  has  as  a  hygienic  agency  is  well  expressed 
by  the  forceful  old  Italian  saying  that,  "Where  the 
sun  never  goes,  the  doctor  must  go."  Sunshine  is 
especially  important  for  the  physical  and  moral  health 
as  well  as  the  happiness  of  children.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  sunlight  which  falls  directly  on  the  page 
when  the  child  is  reading  or  writing  is  harmful  to  the 
eyes.  Curtains  or  screens  are  then  necessary.  It 
must  also  be  remembered  that  a  very  sunny  room  well 
filled  with  children  is  decidedly  uncomfortable  in 
summer.  Local  conditions,  such  as  a  mild  or  a 
severe  climate,  strong  or  badly  nurtured  children, 
distribution  of  class  hours,  etc.,  play  important 
parts.  For  the  health  of  the  children,  sunny  situations 
are  on  the  whole  preferable  to  the  northern  exposure 
which  has  recently  been  advocated.  The  value  of 
sunshine  is  not  to  be  overlooked  when  ideal  situations 
can  be  obtained.  In  the  large  city,  where  a  school- 
house  must  be  placed  of  necessity  in  a  street  with  other 
houses,  the  choice  of  location  of  the  rooms  is  naturally 


8  •  SCHOOL  HYGIENE 

strictly  limited  to  their  distribution  within  the 
schoolhouse. 

Water  Supply. — The  quality  of  the  water  supplied 
to  a  school  is  a  matter  of  the  utmost  importance,  as 
impure  water  may  be  the  source  of  dangerous  disease. 
Filters  are  not  to  be  recommended  because  they  soon 
become  choked  with  bacterial  organisms  and  are 
sterilized  with  difficulty.  At  the  first  appearance  of 
an  epidemic  which  points  suspicion  to  the  water 
supply,  care  should  be  taken  to  sterilize  all  water 
used  for  drinking  purposes.  It  should  be  boiled  for  at 
least  half  an  hour  in  bottles  placed  in  a  kettle  filled 
with  water.  A  little  cold  tea  or  lemon  juice  added 
to  the  boiled  water  takes  away  the  flat  taste. 

A  central  water  supply  is  gradually  being  recognized 
as  a  necessity  in  all  large  communities,  for  a  badly 
situated  or  a  badly  managed  well  is  too  apt  to  become 
a  source  of  epidemics. 

Wells. — In  country  places,  which  lack  a  central 
supply  and  where  it  is  not  always  possible  to  have 
scientific  supervision  to  insure  purity  of  the  water, 
especial  care  should  be  given  to  the  location  of  the 
well;  the  site  must  be  absolutely  without  question. 
Unfortunately  rural  wells  are  often  a  mockery  of  the 
laws  of  hygiene.  Hence  the  school  well  should  be  a 
model  to  the  community.  To  inculcate  this  lesson  in 
the  children,  on  occasions  it  might  be  desirable  to 
show  a  plan  and  cross  section  of  a  good  well  to  the 
older  pupils,  and  to  explain  to  them  the  dangers  of  a 
bad  location.  Concerning  a  good  situation  for  a  well, 
the  points  are  briefly  these.  If  the  ground  has  good 
filtration  powers,  a  vertical  depth  of  about  5  meters 


THE  SCHOOLHOUSE  9 

insures  witter  fre(^  from  ))acteria;  Uk^  filtration  of 
water  running  obliquely  to  the  w(;ll  must  also  bo 
considered.  At  all  events,  deep  wells  of  at  least  8 
meters  are  superior  to  surface  wells.  It  goes  without 
sajang  that  there  should  be  no  toilets,  lavatories,  or 
manure  heaps  nearby,  or  even  within  a  radius  of  10 
meters.  Wells  should  ])(;  dug  to  the  depth  of  at  least 
5  meters,  and  the  shaft  should  be  water-tight.  It  is 
dcsira])le  to  project  the  coping  of  the  well  about  30 
centimeters  above  the  ground;  the  cover  also  should 
be  water-tight.  It  is  better  not  to  have  the  Avell-pipe- 
drop  in  the  middle  of  the  shaft.  The  spout  of  the 
pump  should  project  beyond  the  well  covering,  and 
the  trough  to  carry  off  the  water  should  be  water-tight 
and  lead  at  least  5  meters  away,  so  that  there  shall  be 
no  soaking  in  of  dirty  water.  Drilled  or  driven  wells 
are  to  be  advocated  where  the  ground  is  adaptable. 

The  school  well  has  been  discussed  at  length  because 
investigation  has  proven  that  in  rural  districts  it  is 
frequently  found  to  be  a  menace  to  public  health, 
and  the  opportunity  of  calling  attention  to  this  evil 
may  often  be  presented  to  those  informed  on  this 
important  matter  of  hygiene. 

Drinking  Fountains. — The  drinking  fountain  is 
next  in  importance  to  the  water  supply.  In  most 
schools  the  only  provision  made  is  the  common  drink- 
ing cup,  in  some  a  few  tumblers  are  provided  for  a 
whole  class  of  children.  It  will  generally  be  found 
that  school  children  rarely  rinse  the  common  cup;  or  if 
they  do,  the  operation  lacks  thoroughness.  The  saliva 
adhering  to  the  rim  can  only  be  efficiently  removed 
by  a  strong  flow  of  water,  and  there  is  little  inclination 


10 


SCHOOL  HYGIENE 


on  tho  part  of  children  to  do  this  thoroughly  and 
soniotimes  also  there  is  a  lack  of  time.  The  serious 
consequences  can  readily  be  foreseen;  a  child  infected 
with  diphtheria  may  spread  the  disease  among  those 
who  drink  after  it  out  of  the  same  cup.  Individual 
drinking  cups,  one  for  each  child,  should  be  used  in 
place  of  the  common  cup.  For  thos(!  who  are  too 
poor  to  bu}'  a  cup,  some  charitable  provision  might  be 

made.  This  individual 
cup  should  be  kept  in  the 
school  bag  or  in  a  special 
place  provided  for  it  in  the 
desk  similar  to  that  pro- 
vided for  the  inkstand,  or 
else  the  cups  should  be  left 
in  a  designated  spot  and 
numbered  for  identifica- 
tion, the  younger  pupils 
having  stars,  or  a  cross,  or 
half  moon  to  identify 
theirs.  It  devolves  upon 
parents  and  teachers  to 
instruct  the  children  not 
to  lend  their  cups  to  others. 
Where  running  water  of  sufficient  pressure  is  avail- 
able, a  drinking  fountain  may  be  set  up,  one  that 
requires  no  cup,  but  from  which  the  water  gushes 
directly  into  the  mouth  when  a  valve  is  pressed,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  4.  When  the  child  has  finished  drink- 
ing, he  releases  the  valve' and  the  jet  ceases,  but  the 
water  continues  to  flow  below  the  valve,  washing 
away  the  drops  which   have   fallen  back  from  the 


Fig.  4. — A  drinking  fountain 
requiring  no  cup. 


TH]<:  SCIIOOLHOUSE  1 1 

mouili.  In  this  Avay  the  lips  of  the  drinking  i)orson 
do  not  touch  the  opening  of  the  fountain  which  is 
below  liini  in  the  depth  of  the  basin.  Fountains  such 
as  these  were  introduced  into  a  Vienna  school  in  1906 
on  the  occasion  of  an  anniversary.*  It  is  greatly  to 
l)e  desired  that  other  cities  will  follow  the  example  of 
this  school  by  the  introduction  of  equally  hygienic 
improvements  on  similar  occasions.  In  the  United 
States  fountains  are  us(hI  extensively  as  a  result  of 
the  legislation  which  has  been  passed  prohibiting  the 
us(»  of  public  drinking  cups.  While  New  Jersey, 
Florida  and  Indiana  led  the  other  states  in  this 
action  against  the  common  cup,  there  are  at  present 
more  tiian  a  dozen  states  and  fully  as  many  cities 
which  have  done  away  with  the  use  of  public  cups  in 
schools. 

Construction. — There  is  no  special  need  for  dwelling 
upon  the  hygienic  side  of  building  materials  or  con- 
struction further  than  to  say  it  is  generally  conceded 
that  a  cellar  is  desirable,  though  not  absolutely  neces- 
sary when  there  is  a  good  foundation  of  concrete  and 
floors  which  will  keep  out  the  cold.  It  is  well  to  pre- 
vent the  rise  of  ground  water  in  the  walls  by  using 
layers  of  insulating  material  in  the  foundation  under 
the  floors.  Only  dry  and  moisture  proof  material 
should  go  into  the  making  of  partitions.  To  get  the 
necessary  warmth  and  required  freedom  from  noi^e 
it  is  best  not  only  to  deaden  the  beam  coverings  and 
flooring,  but  also  partly  to  fill  up  the  intervening 
spaces.     Certain    newly    devised   building    materials, 

*Tlu>  model  was  a  good,  cheap  one  invented  by  Oreffice  of 
Padova  (Italy). 


12  SCHOOL  HYGIENE 

made  of  iron  and  concrete,  are  admirable  for  filling 
in.  House  fungus,  the  presence  of  which  may  be- 
come unhygienic  and  a  source  of  expense  when  it 
requires  removal  (though  not  considered  a  poisonous 
growth)  may  be  avoided  by  the  use  of  thoroughly  dried 
wood.  Staircases  which  are  absolutely  fireproof  both 
as  to  the  treadway  and  its  co^^>ring  are  essential. 
The  new  schoolhouse  should  not  be  thrown  open  for 
use  until  it  is  thoroughly  dried  out. 

Schoolhouse  Entrance. — No  schoolhouse,  not  even 
the  smallest,  should  discharge  its  pupils  directly  into 
the  street.  In  large  schools,  at  least  one  entry  for 
every  three  hundred  pupils  is  desirable.  In  the  entry 
room  of  every  schoolhouse,  large  enough  provision 
should  be  made  to  have  the  pupils  wipe  their  shoes 
thoroughly  before  coming  into  the  classrooms.  Since 
the  prevention  of  dirt  in  the  house  is  easier  attended 
to  than  the  operation  of  cleaning,  the  pupils  should 
become  accustomed  to  make  sj^stematic  use  of  the  dust 
mats,  etc.,  from  the  beginning  of  their  schooling. 

Waiting  Rooms. — Waiting  rooms  situated  near  the 
entrance  are  most  desirable  in  city  schoolhouses,  for 
the  convenience  of  those  who  escort  the  children  to 
and  from  school. 

Cloak  Rooms. — Of  especial  concern  to  the  health  of 
the  school  population  are  the  rooms  where  wraps  and 
umbrellas  are  deposited.  If  these  articles  are  kept 
in  the  schoolroom  itself,  the  warmth  of  the  room  and 
the  dampness  of  the  clothing  together  will  soon  cause 
deterioration  of  the  local  atmosphere.  It  is  by  all 
means  desirable  to  have  a  special  cloak  room.  Such 
accessory  rooms  have  gradually  become  an  acknowl- 


THE  SCHOOLHOUSE 


13 


(h1k<'<1  necessity  in  many  countries.  (See  Fig.  5.)  It 
is  also  recommended  that  in  the  cloak  room  provision 
be  made  for  drying  the  damp  footwear  of  the  children 
and  that  each  child  might  have  a  pair  of  tlry  shoes  and 
stockings  for  change.  Cloak  rooms  should,  of  course, 
l)e  well  heated  in  winter  and  well  ventilated  at  all 
seasons;  children  who  come  early  to  school  might  be 
appointed  to  attend  to  these  conditions.  Hallways 
may  also  be  used  as  wardrobes. 


LASS 

r 

RO 

DM 

J 

p 

1 

OFFICE 

. o. 

LIVING 
ROOM 

o 

1  PANTRY    1 
KITCHEN      1 

o 
LIVING 

o 
ROOMS 

^~U 

p 

MAioal 

ROOM  1 

~    1 

p 

--^ 

^=^«^^"=^^^=^^^fc^^^^^^^^B 

CLO/ 

^K 

B 

00 

MS 

- 

*- 

0  5 

I — 1—1 — 1 I i_ 


lOm 


Fk;.  5. — Ground  plan  of  a  one-room  Danish  schuolhousc. 


Lavatories. — -The  cloak  rooms  found  in  the  London 
schools  deserve  special  commendation,  because  of  the 
hygienic  provisions  they  make  for  the  cleanliness  of 
the  pupils.  As  the  children  come  in,  a  teacher  inspects 
them,  and  those  who  are  in  need  of  soap,  water  and  a 
towel,  are  accorded  these  privileges.  There  are  four 
washstands  for  every  one  hundred  children  of  the 
school.     (See  Fig.  6.)     In  respect  to  that  much  in- 


14 


SCHOOL  HYGIENE 


volved  question,  the  hj'giene  of  the  towel,  we  should 
like  to  suggest  that  in  schools  not  frequented  by  the 
very  poor,  each  child  should  bring  his  own  towel  with 
him  to  school  and  carry  it  home  to  be  dried.  The 
very  poor  children  could  have  towels  given  to  them. 
Indoor  Playgrounds. — School  children  should  have 
a  well-warmed  room  in  which  to  spend  the  recess  in 
inclement  weather.  (See  Fig.  8.)  As  it  is  generally 
admitted  that  the  needed  amount  of  play  space  for 
each   child,  even  in  large  cities,  is  at  least  one-half 


■J  Boy's  Staira 


Boj's  Stslre  I 


10 

I  I  I  I 


40m 
—I 


Fig.  6. — Plan  of  the  first  floor  in  a  London  public  school  accom- 
modating twenty  classes. 


square  meter  of  space,  the  amount  necessary  for  this 
purpose  can  easily  be  computed.  The  free  space  thus 
available  for  the  recreation  of  the  children  may  be 
augmented  by  the  wardrobe  space,  i.e.,  where  the 
clothing  is  hung  in  the  corridor  in  a  wire  cage  open  to 
the  air.  On  the  whole,  it  would  seem  to  be  wise  to 
make  the  corridors  only  just  as  wide  as  is  absolutely 


THE  SCHOOLHOUSE 


15 


necessary,  and  the  stairways  not  more  than  a  meter  in 
widtli  (but  increasing  the  number  of  such  stair- 
ways), in  order  that  the  common  recreation  hall  for  all 
the  classes  on  a  floor  may  be  as  large  as  possible.  Fig. 
6  shows  a  hall  of  this  character.  It  admits  of  easy 
supervision  and  may  be  used  as  an  assembly  room 
l)y  a   number  of  classes. 


APPARATUS 
ROOM 


10 


zom 

—I 


Fig.  7. — Ground  plan  of  a  public  school  (32  classes)  in  Frank- 
fort, Germany. 


Arrangement  of  Rooms. — In  the  arrangement  of 
the  rooms  within  the  schoolhouse,  the  classrooms  must 
necessarily  receive  first  consideration  with  respect  to 
good  light  and  a  quiet  location;  passageways,  stairs, 
offices,  showrooms  for  collections  of  educational 
appliances,  reception  rooms  and  assemblies  take 
second  place.     The  indoor  recreation  rooms,  as  well 


16  SCHOOL  HYGIENE 

as  the  playgrounds,  should  be  located  so  as  to  be  easily 
supervised.  Most  unfortunate  is  the  location  of  a 
schoolhouse  in  a  crowded  quarter,  where  almost  all 
space  is  used  for  stairs  and  classrooms;  greatly  to 
be  recommended  on  tlie  other  hand  is  the  type  of 
schoolhouse  with  classrooms  on  only  one  side  of  the 
corridor  as  shown  in  Fig.  7. 

In  the  following  paragraphs  a  few  selected  ground 
plans  for  different  types  of  schools  are  described. 

Ground  Plans. — ^One  of  the  most  significant  means 
for  the  dissemination  of  education  is  the  one-roomed 
schoolhouse  of  rural  districts.  The  plan  of  a  school- 
house  of  this  type  officially  recommended  in  Denmark 
is  shown  in  Fig.  5.  Observe  the  small  'number  of 
children  accommodated,  and  also  that  the  boys  and 
girls  have  separate  cloak  rooms.  The  house  is  in- 
tended as  a  home  for  the  teacher  and  his  family 
and  contains  a  guest  chamber  in  the  attic,  besides 
other  living  rooms  and  premises  not  shown  in  the 
sketch. 

Fig.  6  shows  the  ground  floor  plan  (girls'  floor)  of  a 
three-storied  London  public  school  accommodating 
twenty  classes.  The  cloak  room  with  lavatory  and 
hall,  where  children  can  gather  in  bad  weather  before 
morning  instruction  begins,  will  be  seen.  The  l)oys' 
floor,  the  stairs  leading  to  which  are  shown,  is  above,  j 
while  the  kindergarten  is  below.  Fig.  7  shows  the 
left  half  of  a  ground  plan  of  the  girls'  division  of  a 
four-storied  public  school,  accommodating  altogether 
thirty-two  classes,  found  in  Frankfort-on-the-Main 
(Germany).  It  will  be  observed  that  the  window 
posts  are  narrow  and  that  the  classrooms  are  situated 


THE  iSCHUULlIOUSE 


17 


0  5  10 

I 1- 


50ra 


Fig.  8, — A  school  and  its  grounds  at  Viroflay,   France. 
2 


18  SCHOOL  HYGIENE 

only  on  one  side  of  tlie  corridor,  the  gymnasium  being 
only  one  story  high. 

In  France  and  England,  and  recently  in  Germany 
and  Italy,  the  kindergarten  has  been  combined  with 
the  elementary  school.  Fig.  8  shows  a  ground  plan 
of  a  French  group  of  schools  (groupe  scolaire).  The 
elementary  school  is  designed  for  three  boys'  and 
three  girls'  classes,  and  the  kindergarten  is  in  the 
rear.  The  upper  parts  of  the  buildings  not  shown 
in  the  sketch  contain  janitor's  quarters,  which  are 
accessible  by  a  separate  stairway.  Of  special  interest 
are  the  covered  outdoor  recreation  spaces  and  the 
playgrounds. 

The  Classroom. — From  a  discussion  of  schoolhouse 
plans  in  general,  we  turn  to  a  consideration  of  the 
individual  rooms  used  for  educational  purposes, 
including  the  gymnasium.  Of  these,  the  ordinar}^ 
classroom  is  the  most  important.  It  is  the  one  room 
in  the  school  building  where  the  pupil  spends  most  of 
his  time  and  performs  most  of  his  tasks,  including 
reading  and  writing,  accomplishments  which  under 
unfavorable  conditions  may  injure  his  health.  A  com- 
plete understanding  of  the  hygienic  requirements  of 
this  room  will  be  gained  only  after  a  detailed  considera- 
tion of  lighting,  airing,  and  heating. 

2.  Lighting 

Hermann  Cohn  of  Breslau,  who  for  years  worked  in 
the  interests  of  school  hygiene,  once  said  that  a  school- 
room can  never  have  too  much  (diffused)  light.  The 
light  of  the  sun  is  not  only  an  aid  to  cleanliness  and  a 
foe  to  pathogenic  micro-organisms,  l)ut  the  degree  of 


THE  SCHOOLIIOUSE 


19 


sunlight  also  has  important  bearings  on  the  general 
health  of  the  body,  as  regards  its  functions  of  respira- 
tion, digestion,  etc.,  as  well  as  in  the  preservation 
of  unimpaired  eyesight  and  good  posture.  At  a 
distance  of  2  meters  from  a  window,  the  light  is 
only  about  80  percent  as  bright  as  at  1  meter,  at 
3  meters  only  50  percent  as  ])right.  A  realization 
of  such  values  brings  out  the  necessity  for  special 
study  of  how  to  light 
the  schoolroom  so  as 
not  to  injure  the 
sight  of  any  of  the 
occupants. 

Light  Measure- 
ment. — The  amount  JJ- 
of  light  in  different 
parts  of  the  room  can 
be  ascertained  and  ex- 
pressed in  figures  by 
means  of  the  photo- 
meter. It  can  be 
calculated  in  meter- 
candles,  1  meter- 
candle  equalling  the  intensity  of  light  which  the  flame 
of  a  standard  candle  throws  on  white  paper  at  a  dis- 
tance of  1  meter.  The  usual  requii-ements  are  25 
meter-candles  measured  in  white  light. 

An  excellent,  though  costly  photometer,  is  that  of 
Weber;  one  designed  by  Wingen  is  smaller  and  simpler 
but  not  so  exact.  The  latter  (Fig.  9)  consists  of  a 
little  box  about  a  span  high  in  which  is  a  benzine  flame 
B,  observed  through  S.     The  height  of  this  flame  is 


Fig.  9. — Photometer  by  Wingen. 


20 


SCHOOL  TIYGIENE 


regulated  by  means  of  the  knob  K,  so  that  the  amount 
of  light  cast  upon  the  prism  within  the  box  at  C 
(observed  at  M)  can  be  made  to  correspond  with 
the  daylight  cast  on  the  pupil's  desk  at  C".  Since 
the  actinic  values  in  the  benzine  light  and  daylight 
are  not  the  same,  it  is  necessary  to  compare  the  red 
part  of  each  (R,  the  red  glass),  and  afterward  to  mul- 
tiply by  a  factor,  in  order  to  obtain  the  equivalent 
candle  power  of  the  daylight. 

Angle  of  Light. — There  are  also  instruments  for 
computing  the  angle  of  light  falling  on  a  pupil's  desk. 
By  dividing  the  equator  S  of  a  globe  into  360  degrees 

and  constructing  a 
square  over  each 
degree,  or  a  "square 
degree/'  we  have 
over  41,000  such 
square  degrees  for 
the  whole  of  the 
globe.  If  one  plots 
the  n  u  m  b  e  r  of 
square  degrees  o  f 
sky  sending  light  on 
a  horizontal  sur- 
face, the  so-called 
room  angle  is  ob- 
tained, of  which  50  degrees  are  demanded  for  each 
pupil's  place.  No  computations  are  necessary  with  a 
little  apparatus  made  by  F.  Pleier  in  Karlsbad.*  It 
consists  of  a  pocket  camera  (Fig.  10)  in  which  a 
glass  screen  is  placed  between  the  plate  and  the  lens. 

*lDStitut,  F.    Schmidt  &  Haensch,  Berlin. 


Fig. 


10. — Pleier's  camera  for  measur- 
ing  the   angle   of   light. 


TUK  SC'TIOOLIIOITSK 


21 


This  screen  is  made  up  of  parallelograms  each  corre- 
spoiKlinf>;  to  4  s(iuare  (lef»;rees;  but  these  parallelo- 
grams are  of  differcnit  sizes  having  been  graduated 
accortling  to  the  relative  values  of  the  light,  corre- 
sponding to  a  greater  or  less  angle  of  incidence.  If  the 
camera  is  placed  on  the  child's  desk  and  directed 
toward  the  light,  a  photograph  can  be  taken  like 
that  of  Fig.  11.  It  is  possible  in  this  way  to  estimate 
the  light  coming  from  four  windows.  In  this  picture 
the  number  of  square  de- 
grees of  direct  daylight,  as 
well  as  reflected  light  is  given, 
and  all  without  further  reck- 
oning, as  the  correct  room 
angle  is  obtained  because 
the  differing  light  values  in 
connection  with  the  angl(>  of 
incidence  are  already  taken 
account  of  by  the  screen 
within  the  camera.  By  means 
of  the  photometer,  especially 
by  means  of  the  apparatus  to 
measure  the  room  angle,  it  is 
possible  to  determine  whether 
a  room  has  sufficient  light. 
Unfortunately,  if  this  is 
found  not  to  be  the  case  im- 
provement seldom  follows. 
As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  many  badly  lighted  classrooms 
still  in  existence  date  from  the  time  when  hygienic 
matters  were  not  considered;  in  such  rooms  children 
have  suffered  for  decades.     But  as  far  as  the  building 


Fig.  11. — PhotoRrapli 
taken  witli  the  PI  e  i  c  r 
cuinera  for  measuring  the 
angle  of  hght. 


22 


SCHOOL  HYGIENE 


of  new  schoolhouses  is  concerned,  our  whole  aim  must 
be  to  see  that  badly  lighted  rooms  shall  no  longer  be 
erected,  and  this  ideal  does  not  involve  the  question 
of  cost  as  an  insurmountable  difficulty.  Still  a  school 
plan  based  on  the  most  finished  scientific  methods  may 
not  be  attainable  even  in  large  cities,  not  to  mention  the 
smaller  towns,  and  on  the  other  hand  it  is  a  fact  that 
up  to  the  present  for  various  reasons  the  exact  and 
scientifically  incontestable  minimum  amount  of  light 


Fig.  12. — Measuring  the  light  on  the  desk  farthest  from  the 

window. 


necessary  from  the  hygienic  point  of  view  has  not 
})een  stated.  But  the  following  is  a  simple  rule  which 
any  rural  carpenter  might  follow  when  constructing  a 
new  school  building.  Thr.  rule  merely  demands 
direct  daylight  even  on  the  desk  farthest  from  the 
windows.  Fig.  12  shows  a  carpenter's  cross-section 
cut  of  a  schoolhouse  and  one  wall  of  a  nearby  building. 
The  house  shows  the  outside  walls,  one  room  with  a 
window  and  a  desk  in  the  farthest  corner.     A  line, 


THE  SCHOOLHOUSE  23 

o  — a,  is  drawn  from  the  pupil's  desk  to  the  top  of  the 
window  and  extended  outwartl;  another  line,  a  — u, 
is  drawn  from  the  top  of  the  nearby  building  or 
whatever  ol)stacle  cuts  off  the  light,  and  is  brought 
to  the  pupil's  desk.  The  angle  between  these  lines 
shows  the  path  of  direct  light  to  the  desk. 

This  ajm  of  direct  daylight  on  the  desk  of  the  pupil 
in  the  farthest  corner  of  the  room  should  be  possible 
even  in  the  largest  cities.  If  it  can  not  be  achieved 
for  the  lower  stories,  these  should  not  be  used  for 
school  purposes,  but  rented  out,  or  other  disposition 
made  of  them.  It  need  hardly  l^e  mentioned  that  in 
planning  a  schoolhouse,  the  l)uilding  laws  of  the  com- 
munity should  be  carefully  considered,  so  that  it  may 
not  happen  that  well-lighted  rooms  will  subsequently 
be  deprived  of  their  light  through  the  erection  of 
towering  structures  in  the  neigh])orhood. 

Direction  of  Light. — When  schoolrooms  are  lighted 
by  windows  on  only  one  side,  as  is  usually  the  case, 
the  windows  should  by  all  means  be  situated  to  the 
left  of  the  pupils,  for  light  coming  from  the  left  is 
most  desirable  for  writing.  Lighting  from  the  front 
is  not  to  be  considered;  if  the  light  comes  from 
the  rear  it  blinds  the  teacher  and  increases  the 
difficulties  of  supervision,  but  lighting  from  high  up  is 
not  to  be  condemned  and  may  have  the  advantage  of 
illuminating  the  blackboard  in  front  of  the  pupils. 
The  desirability  of  light  coming  from  both  sides  is  a 
matter  of  dispute.  If  the  aisle  is  located  to  the  right 
of  the  room,  the  light  from  that  side,  even  where  there 
are  windows  to  both  sides,  can  not  be  as  strong  as  that 
coming  from  the  left.     In  so  far  as  the  space  on  the 


24  SCHOOL  HYGIENE 

righthand  wall  is  not  to  be  iitilizod  for  a  door,  or 
possil)ly  for  radiators  and  ventilators,  it  might  be 
desirable  to  plan  for  windows  above,  in  order  to  secure 
good  ventilation.  No  disturbing  shadows  will  be 
thrown  by  windows  thus  located. 

Windows. — The  matter  of  the  schoolroom  window  is 
not  a  simple  one  from  a  technical  point  of  view.  It 
goes  without  saying  that  the  windows  should  be 
divided  symmetrically  and  the  spaces  between  should 
be  as  small  as  possible.  A  glance  at  the  windows  of 
the  classrooms  in  Fig.  7  shows  carefully  studied 
construction.  Broad  frames  not  only  take  away 
considerable  light  in  general,  but  they  also  especially 
darken  the  places  of  pupils  sitting  beneath,  and  much 
more  so  if  the  spaces  between  are  used  as  wardrobes. 
Furthermore,  the  window  must  be  rectilinear,  rounded 
or  pointed  windows  being  entirely  out  of  place  in  the 
classroom.  The  transom  of  the  window  should  extend 
as  far  as  possible  to  the  ceiling,  as  in  this  way  the 
angle  of  incidence  of  the  light  rays  and  the  bulk  of 
the  direct  beams  will  be  increased.  Window  frames 
and  intersections  should  be  as  small  as  possible  and 
painted  white.  Window  panes  absorb  quite  a  good 
deal  of  Hght,  as  Selter,  in  Bonn,  has  proved  l)y  his 
experiments;  and  this  is  particularly  true  of  dusty 
windows.  For  this  reason,  the  windows  of  the  school- 
room should  be  washed  frequently.  It  would  be  well 
to  have  double  windows  to  insure  warmth  in  winter,  or 
at  least  in  single  windows  to  have  two  thicknesses  of 
glass  5  centimeters  apart. 

But  the  schoolroom  window  must  also  serve  the 
purpose    of    airing.     It    is    therefore    necessary  that 


Till']  SC^HOOLHOUSE  25 

the  windows  should  be  such  as  to  admit  of  bcins 
opened  quickly  and  easily,  especially  the  upper  parts; 
the  lower  sections  when  opened  must  not  hinder 
passage.*  Sash  windows  are  better  than  French 
windows  for  the  schoolroom. 

Curtains  and  Shades. — In  connection  with  the  high 
and  large  window,  arises  the  problem  of  curtaining 
or  shading  witii  a  minimum  loss  of  light.  The 
shades  must  often  be  drawn  when  the  window  is 
open,  and  they  should  be  adapted  for  this  use; 
and  they  should  be  so  arranged  as  not  to  admit  oblique 
rays  of  light  at  the  sides.  The  shades  when  not  in 
use  should  fit  into  an  opening  made  in  the  window  sill, 
which  is  preferable  to  the  folded  shade  at  the  top  of 
the  window  where  it  obstructs  necessary  light. 
Shades  which  can  be  rolled  up  tightly  are  not  objec- 
tiona])le  when  placed  at  the  top  of  the  window.  The 
shade  material  is  of  importance;  it  must  be  of  good 
quality,  plain  (not  striped),  not  too  thick,  white  or 
cream-colored.  Fine  white  shirting,  light  in  quality, 
is  the  most  suitable.  The  shades  should  be  arranged 
in  such  a  way  that  they  can  easily  be  taken  off  to  be 
cleaned. 

Light  Reflectors. — It  might  be  possible  to  improve 
the  lighting  of  old,  badly  built  schoolhouses  by  re- 
constructing the  window  spaces,  making  them  ])roader 
and  higher,  l)ut  because  of  the  prohibitive  cost,  this 
is  rarely  undertaken  aftpr  a  schoolhouse  is  once  built. 
Improvements  in  lighting  may  also  be  affected  by 
the   use   of   glass  reflectors,    such   as  the   American 

*  (The  windows  which  are  considorpd  hero  are  of  the  casonient 
order  exclusively  used  in  Europe.     Translators.) 


26  SCHOOL  HYGIENE 

Liixfor  prisms,  or  the  French  verres  prismatigues, 
wliich  are  somewhat  cheaper  than  the  first  named 
reflectors  or  mirrors.  But  in  order  to  make  these 
reflectors  really  serviceable,  they  must  be  kept 
absolutely  free  from  dust. 

Artificial  Lighting. — The  discussion  of  lighting  thus 
far  has  been  with  reference  to  daylight,  but  un- 
fortunately it  is  often  not  possible  to  depend  upon 
that  means  alone,  and  artificial  lighting  must  also  be. 
considered  for  the  schoolroom.  In  the  home  it  is 
possible  to  have  the  lamp  on  a  table,  to  the  left  of  the 
reader.  It  is  not  possible  to  give  every  pupil  in  the 
schoolroom  an  equal  advantage,  for  a  crowd  of  children 
must  all  have  a  free  line  of  vision  to  the  blackboard. 
How  many  children  in  brightly  lighted  rooms  do  we 
not  see  at  work  on  their  blank  books  in  the  deep 
shadow  made  by  the  book  or  the  hand;  that  is,  in  a 
flood  of  light  there  are  shadows  just  where  the  greatest 
intensity  of  light  should  be!  Erismann  of  Zurich 
has  found  that  an  occupied  desk  did  not  have  quite 
six  percent  of  the  light  that  fell  on  it  when  the  desk 
was  empty.  But  apart  from  this,  unfortunately  the 
light  itself  is  not  always  of  sufficient  intensity,  or 
it  falls  so  that  there  is  a  glare  in  the  eyes  of  the  pupils 
as  they  glance  at  the  l)lackboard.  Further,  the 
strength  of  the  light  depends  as  much  on  the  distance 
as  on  the  side  from  which  it  comes.  It  is  also  worthy 
of  mention  that  some  kinds  of  light  have  bad  effects 
on  the  air  of  the  schoolroom  by  generating  noxious 
gases. 

Electric  lighting,  as  well  as  lighting  by  Welsbach, 
lights,  has  done  much  to  obviate  such  disadvantages. 


THE  SCHOOLHOUSE 


27 


Kerosene  or  alcohol  lamps  arc  not  desirable  for 
school  use  because  they  require  too  much  atten- 
tion. Modern  lishtins  has  achieved  its  greatest 
success  in  the  electric  ])ulb,  wliich  lias  enormously 
increased  the  intensity  of  available  light  with  purity 
of  the  air  and  a  minimum  degree  of  heat  and 
dryness. 

Dififused  Lighting. — But  the  difficulty  of  overcom- 
ing, with  any  kind  of  direct  artificial  light,  shadows 
made  by  the  hands  and  bodies  of  the  pupils  still 
rotnains.  This  disadvantage  has  been  met  by 
Jasper  of  Paris  who  dis- 
covered a  method  for  diffus- 
ing light.  For  this  plan  of 
lighting,  the  ceiling  a  n  d 
the  upper  third  of  the  walls 
are  painted  a  clean  white. 
The  lights  are  hung  a  short 
distance  from  the  ceiling, 
about  half  a  meter,  and 
each  lamp  has  underneath  it 
an  opaque  shield  which  re- 
flects light  on  to  the  ceiling 
or  on  an  upper  shield,  that  Fig.  13.— Diffused  lighting 
is,  the  lamp  sends  its  light  by  Welsbach  lamp, 
upward  not  downward. 

The  utility  of  such  lighting  has  been  demonstrated 
in  many  localities.  Fig.  13  shows  a  lamp  designed 
by  Egloff  in  Turgi  (Switzerland).  The  advantage 
of  indirect  lighting  is  this,  that  the  ceiling  of  the  room, 
as  well  as  the  upper  walls,  throws  the  light  in  all 
directions,  and  while  the  intensity  of  light  reaching 


28  SCHOOL  HYGIENE 

the  desk  is  somewhat  diininishod  because  a  part  is 
absorbed,  the  distriliution  is  much  more  even  than  in 
direct  lighting;  and,  what  is  still  more  important, 
there  are  no  shadows.  Such  diffused  lighting  resembles 
very  closely  the  daylight  of  a  clouded  sk5\  Be- 
cause of  these  advantages,  indirect  or  diffused  light- 
ing is  being  rapidly  adopted  in  all  places  where  the 
formation  of  shadows  is  a  handicap.  In  the  use  of 
this  light,  at  first  the  absence  of  shadows  is  confusing. 
That  less  light  is  needed  has  been  demonstrated  by 
the  experiments  of  Prausnitz  in  Graz  (Austria). 
In  a  classroom  measuring  105  square  meters,  where 
the  pupils  were  receiving  instruction  in  drawing,  18 
Auer  (Welsbach)  lamps  gave  amply  sufficient  diffused 
light  for  the  finest  work.  In  the  ordinary  classroom 
there  should  be  one  Auer  lamp  for  every  10  square 
meters  of  floor  space;  under  such  conditions,  the 
light  will  be  better  than  that  supplied  b}^  an  equal 
number  of  lamps  with  direct  lighting.  One  dis- 
advantage, however,  consists  in  this,  that  in  dustj^,  ■ 
sooty  localities  the  white  ceiling  and  walls,  as  well  as 
the  reflectors,  quickly  accumulate  dust.  The  difficulty 
of  cleaning  is  not  insuperable  if  the  person  in  charge 
of  the  cleaning  is  supplied  with  a  small  mirror 
adjusted  on  a  long  pole;  but  unfortunately,  few 
janitors  will  bestow  any  care  on  surfaces  over  three 
or  four  meters  from  the  floor.  The  lighting,  of  course, 
suffers  a  steady  decrease  in  intensity  as  the  room  be- 
comes dingy. 

Direct  Lighting. — Where  direct  lighting  is  used, 
lamp  shades  are  necessary.  It  is  well  to  have  the 
shades  large.     If  electric  glow  lamps  are  used  they  may 


THE  SCHOOLHOUSE  29 

1)0  fixcnl  without  shades  directly  on  the  ceiling,  for 
thousii  the  intensity  of  H^lit  is  lessened  somewhat  by 
the  increased  distance,  the  diffusion  is  better  and  the 
shadows  are  less  pronounced,  as  is  proved  by  the 
experiments  of  Ileibmayr  in  Innsbruck  (Austria). 
With  Auer  lights  and  direct  lighting,  eye  shields  should 
])c  used.  Flickering  lights  should  never  be  tolerated 
in  schoolrooms. 

Gas  Lighting.— Gas  lighting  is  unsatisfactory  be- 
cause of  the  danger  of  unsuspected  leakages  which 
may  deteriorate  the  air  of  the  rooms  and  constitute  a 
money  loss  as  well.  Absolute  freedom  from  leakage, 
however,  may  now  be  assured  by  a  small,  inexpensive 
apparatus  by  means  of  which  a  daily  test  can  be  made. 
It  is  well  to  insert  cocks  at  convenient  places  when 
the  building  is  in  course  of  construction,  as  it  may  be 
practicable  to  turn  off  the  gas  supply  in  unused  portions 
of  the  building  and  during  vacations,  thus  preventing 
possible  leakages.  The  main  cock  should  be  in  an 
accessible  place,  not  in  the  cellar. 

3.  Ventilation  and  Heating 

Condition  of  the  Air. — Dry  air  is  composed  of  about 
79  percent  nitrogen,  20.94  percent  oxygen  and  0.04 
percent  carbon  dioxide.  The  air  as  it  comes  from 
the  lungs  has  about  the  same  quantity  of  nitrogen, 
16.03  percent  of  oxygen  and  4.38  percent  of  carbonic 
acid  gas.  Its  oxygen  content  has  thus  been  reduced 
about  20  percent,  while  the  carbonic  acid  gas  has  in- 
creased 100  percent.  In  addition,  small  quantities  of 
volatile  substances  have  accumulated  which  tend  to 


30  SCHOOL  HYGIENE 

render  a  well-filled  room  unj)leusant  if  there  be  no 
ventilation.  The  offensiveness  of  the  room  is  in- 
creased when  the  occupants  have  not  kept  themselves 
clean  nor  provided  themselves  with  clean  undergar- 
ments (cf.  school  baths  p.  63-64).  It  is  difficult  to 
demonstrate  the  presence  of  these  volatile  organic 
stuffs  in  chemical  terms;  hence  von  Pettenkofer  in 
Munich  took  the  quantity  of  carbonic  acid  gas  in  a 
room  as  an  indication  of  the  quality  of  the  air.  He 
claimed  that  air  is  injurious  when  the  ratio  of  carbonic 
acid  gas  is  over  1  per  1,000.  Tests  made  in  badly 
ventilated  schoolrooms  have  revealed  the  presence  of 
14.8  parts  of  carbon  dioxide  to  1,000  of  the  air  in  the 
room.  In  a  crowded,  unventilated  room  the  carbonic 
acid  increases  after  only  twelve  minutes  to  the  maxi- 
mum, 1  to  1,000.  This  applies  to  a  room  where  4 
cubic  meters  of  air  space  are  allowed  for  each  pupil. 
It  must  be  mentioned,  however,  that  von  Petten- 
kofer's  conclusions  are  open  to  question  and  that  the 
experiments  of  Fliigge,  made  in  his  laboratory  in 
Breslau  (Germany),  have  shown  results  which  are 
worthy  of  consideration.  The  human  body  constantly 
generates  heat  and  must  lose  this  heat  if  it  is  to 
maintain  a  constant  temperature;  i.e.,  it  carries  on 
unconsciously  a  system  of  loss  of  heat  by  conduction, 
radiation  and  water  evaporation.  When  there  are 
other  bodies  in  close  proximity,  and  these  are  also 
giving  off  heat  and  water  at  the  same  time,  as  we  find 
in  a  schoolroom,  the  process  of  heat  regulation  is 
rendered  much  more  difficult  than  it  would  be  in  the 
open  air.  The  result  is  that  in  crowded  rooms,  heat 
accumulation  takes  place  within  the  body,  which  in 


THE  SCHOOJJIOUSE  31 

turn  produces  patliolofrical  symptoms,  such  as  a 
sense  of  oppression,  and  even  syncope.  The  ex- 
experiments  of  Paul  and  I^-cklentz  in  Breshiu  (Ger- 
many) have  sliown  conchisively  that  with  a  high 
temperature  (up  to  80  degrees  centigrade)  and  a 
high  degree  of  humi(Hty,  the  individuals  in  his  test 
chamber  soon  showed  these  ill  effects,  while  with  a  low 
temperature  (below  20  degrees)  and  average  humidity, 
such  symptoms  were  altogether  absent,  even  after 
two  hours'  stay  in  this  atmosphere,  notwithstanding 
the  fact  that  in  both  cases  the  car])on  dioxide  content 
of  the  air  was  greatly  increased — in  the  first  instance 
to  13  per  1,000,  and  in  the  second  as  high  as  16  per 
1,000. 

Hence  it  is  clear  that  for  general  school  conditions 
the  temperature  of  the  classroom  should  not  be  above 
20  degrees  centigrade,  at  which  temperature  the  body 
can  carry  on  its  processes  of  regulating  heat  most 
effectively.  But  even  when  the  temperature  is  kept 
at  the  recognized  standard,  occasional  thorough  airing 
of  the  classroom  should  not  be  regarded  mcrel}'  as  a 
secondary  need.  The  increased  carbon  dioxide  in  the 
atmosphere  decreases  the  exchange  of  aii-  within  the 
lungs.  The  work  of  the  lungs  is  therefore  lessened, 
especially  as  the  children  remain  inactive.  As  the 
children  sit  quietly  at  their  desks,  they  are  constantly 
breathing  in  a  good  amount  of  the  air  which  has  just 
been  exhaled,  because  respiration  for  all  of  them  is  on 
practically  the  same  level  within  the  room.  For  this 
reason  we  need  fresh  outdoor  air. 

The  presence  of  poisonous  substances  in  expired  air 
has  not  indeed  been  conclusively  proved,  although  the 


32  SCHOOL  HY(;iENE 

investigations  of  Hehvig  of  Zinnowitz  (Germany) 
have  shown  that  the  bad  air  of  unventihited*  crowded 
rooms  seems  to  have  an  influence  on  the  red  blood 
corpuscles,  giving  the  cells  an  appearance  of  under- 
going degenerative  changes.  These  characteristics 
of  the  red  blood  cells  are  not  present  under  favorable 
conditions,  i.e.,  after  bodily  exercise  in  the  open  air. 
The  investigations  of  Lobsien  in  Kiel  (Germany)  have 
likewise  shown  that  breathing  exercises  have  a 
favorable  influence  upon  mental  activit3\ 

As  has  already  been  mentioned,  it  is  undesirable  for 
children  to  sit  in  the  schoolroom  before  the  beginning 
of  the  session,  when  they  can  move  about  in  a  recrea- 
tion room,  or  better  yet,  may  be  exercising  outdoors, 
as  has  become  the  rule  in  England. 

Dust. — Dust  is  another  source  of  air  deterioration 
and  one  which  is  being  increasingh'  recognized.  It  is 
not  well  to  keep  children  sitting  for  a  long  period  of 
time,  and  yet  when  they  move  about  the  room  they 
must  stir  up  dust;  for  this  reason,  again,  they  should 
not  come  into  the  classroom  long  before  school. 
Rooms  must  be  cleaned  and  aired  as  often  as  possible; 
the  air  of  even  a  clean  room  holds  hundreds  of  organ- 
isms, while  a  dirty  room  contains  hundreds  of  thous- 
ands to  the  cubic  meter.  The  evil  conditions  that 
exist  in  many  classrooms,  so  far  as  the  iirosencc  of  dust 
is  concerned,  have  been  brought  out  by  the  numerous 
investigations  that  have  been  made.  Mej^er  in 
Leipsic,  for  example,  found  that  with  taking  particular 
care  to  keep  the  shoes  dusted,  the  quantity  of  dust 
which  had  accumulated  from  one  bi-weekly  sweeping 
to  another  equalled  191  grams  in  dry  weather  and  327 


1 


THE  SCHOOLHOUSE  Xi 

grams  in  rainy  weather.  Of  the  swopt-up  dirt  a  largo 
part  sinks  to  the  floor  after  a  ([uarter  of  an  liour.  hut 
the  finest  (hist  requires  from  iiaU'  an  hour  to  an  iicjur 
and  a  half  to  settle.     In  this  dust  tlisease  may  lurk. 

It  is  a  noteworthy  fact  that  many  hygienists  who  in- 
vestigate the  dust  problem  select  the  school  as  the 
most  productive  ])reeding  place.  From  what  has 
been  said  about  the  relatively  long  suspension  of  the 
fine  dust  particles  in  the  atmosphere,  it  follows  that 
dusting  of  furniture  should  not  immediately  follow 
sweeping,  and  also  that  the  sweeping  (which  should 
never  ])e  dry)  must  not  V)e  undertaken  shortly  before 
schooltime. 

Airing. — It  is  clear  that  the  airing  of  the  school- 
room bears  an  important  relation  to  the  health  of  its 
occupants.  To  have  a  constant  interchange  of 
air  in  the  classroom  would  necessitate  so  large  an 
accession  of  fresh  outdoor  air  as  to  make  the  move- 
ment of  air  in  the  room  plainly  perceptible.  This  is 
mostly  the  case  with  artificial  ventilators,  and  for 
that  reason  they  are  not  always  practicable.  In  the 
dwelling  house  with  its  relativelj'-  small  number  of 
occupants,  conditions  are  different;  there  untight 
windows  and  doors  often  create  unobserved  channels 
of  air.  Even  an  unused  stove  and  porous  walls  in 
themselves  are  ventilating  agencies,  which  can  be  only 
slightly  effectual  in  the  case  of  the  school. 

Direct  airing  is  admirable,  and  can  be  readily 
achieved  by  opening  doors  and  windows  while  the 
children  are  sent  into  the  corridor.  In  cold  weather 
a  rapid  exchange  of  air  takes  place  in  consequence 
of  the   diffeicnce   of  tciiipcrnl un>.     The  air  does  not 


34  SCHOOL  HYGIENE 

contain  much  heat,  whereas  the  furniture  of  the  room 
and  its  walls  contain  on  the  average  about  1,000  times 
as  much  heat  in  the  same  cubic  space;  the  room 
loses  very  little  of  its  stored  heat  during  a  minute's 
exposure  to  the  cold  and  a  minute  of  thorough  airing, 
or  even  half  a  minute,  suffices  in  very  cold  weather 
to  effect  a  renewal  of  air.  If  the  heating  is  good,  the 
remainder  of  the  recess  time  of  say  a  dozen  minutes 
will  be  sufficient  to  warm  the  air;  the  breathing  of 
colder,  fresher  air  in  a  room  where  the  walls  and 
furniture  are  still  warm  does  not  jeopardize  the  health. 
Valuable  experiments  with  this  simple  method  of 
ventilation  have  been  carried  on  by  Dank\varth  and 
Schmidt  of  Dresden. 

Ventilation. — During  the  summer  or  in  warm 
weather,  the  windows  of  the  schoolroom  can  well  be 
left  open  if  the  situation  of  the  building  warrants 
it,  but  in  cold  w^eather  artificial  aids  to  venti- 
lation are  necessary.  The  best  is  the  so-called 
mechanical  ventilation,  that  is  by  means  of  an  ap- 
paratus worked  by  motors.  This  type  of  ventilation 
is  practicable  where  the  power,  i.e.,  electricity,  is  not 
too  expensive.  It  is  being  used  extensively  in  the 
United  States,  even  in  small  schools,  and  also  here 
and  there  in  the  higher  schools  of  Europe.  As  has  al- 
ready been  mentioned,  this  method  of  ventilation  is 
in  use  in  the  Drontheim  pavilion  school. 

In  all  artificial  ventilation  to  bring  in  fresh  air  is 
preferable  to  taking  out  vitiated  air  by  suction,  for 
in  the  latter  case  the  source  of  the  incoming  air  is 
questionable. 

Even  a  small  school  can  have  its  ventilating  sj'-stem 


THE  SCHOOLHOIISK 


35 


and,  if  the  directions  for  oporation  aro  to  be  found 
posted  conveniently  in  the  schoolhouse,  there  should 
be  no  trouble  in  management.  One  method  is  to  have 
an  air  pipe,  leading  say  from  a  garden,  whtM-e  the 
best  air  may  be  had,  with  tiic  opening  protected 
against  mice  and  cats  by  a  screen.  This  air  pipe 
(L.  Figs.  14  and  16)  enters  a  stove,  or  more  correctly 
speaking,  enters  between  the 
stove  and  its  outside  casing  or 
mantle,  where  the  cold  air  be- 
comes warmed,  and  then  flows 
into  the  room.  The  lieated  air 
being  lighter  naturally  rises  in 
the  room  and  constantly  re- 
places  the    colder    strata.     The 

used  air   in  the  room  which   is 

colder  sinks  and  escapes  through 
an  opening  in  a  corner  near  the 

floor    (W,  Fig.   15),  not   near  a 

pupil's  desk.    This  opening  leads 

to  a  conduit  going  to  the  roof, 

where  the  used  air  finds  an  out- 
let.    Of   course,  in  summer  the 

conditions     are     reversed;     the 

clean  air  is  then  the  cooler  air, 

and  the  opening  for  the  escape  of 

the  used  air  should  be  near  the  ceiling  (S,  Fig.  15). 

This  vent  (S)   open  in  summer  should  be  closed  in 

winter  when  W  is  in  operation  for  the  exit  of  used 

air. 

This  method  of  ventilating  by  means  of  temperature 

differences  unfortunately  has  its  weak  side.     It  works 


inger  stove. 


36 


SCHOOL  HYGIENE 


admirably  in  severe  weather  wlien  the  temperature 
contrasts  are  sharp,  sometimes  too  well,  ])ecause  so 
much  air  comes  in,  that  the  opening  will  have  to  be 
closed  to  save  using  so  much  coal;  but  when  little 
heating  is  required,  the  amount  of  fresh  air  admitted 
by  the  ventilator  will  naturally  be  correspondingly 
small.  Moreover  the  upper  vent  (S)  is  of  use  only 
when  the  air  of  the  room  is  warmer  than  the  air  out- 
side. It  might  be  possible  during  warm  weather  to 
warm  the  air  in  the  conduit  which  carries  out  the  foul 
air  by  means  of  a  gas  jet  or  a  lamp,  thus  aiding  the 


y////y/////////////////////////////^^^^^^ 


w 


y/////'/////////////. 


HALL 


Fi<;.  15. — Ventilation  by  temperature  differences. 

process  of  air  exchange.  Since  the  air  in  summer 
streams  in  at  doors  and  windows,  the  ventilation 
canal  L  (Fig.  16)  could  be  dispensed  with  entirely 
without  spoiling  the  air  of  the  room,  for  if  it  were  open 
it  would  simply  admit  air  which  would  immediately 
escape  through  S,  without  circulating  in  the  room. 
Scientific  ventilation  demands  that  the  air  in  dusty 
places  shall  be  filtered. 

Heating. — The  essential  requirements  of  all  school 
stoves  arc  that  they  shall  l)e  safe,  shall  not  give  too 
much  heat,  shall  warm  quickly  and  evenly,  and  be  an 
aid  to  ventilation,  not  a  soirrce  of  bad  air.  To  avoid 
the  latter  jDossibility,  care  must  be  taken  to  see  that 


THE  SCHOOFJTOUSE 


\M 


no  part  of  the  stove,  including  tiie  oven,  becomes  too 
hot,  for  overheating  causes  deterioration  of  the  air 
tin'ough  action  upon  any  (hist-  which  tiiay  fall  on  the 
stove  or  which  may  linger  in  1  he  at  mosphere  al)out  the 
stove,  as  has  been  demon- 
strated l)y  Nussbaum  in 
Hanover  (Germany)  and  by 
von  Esmarch  in  Gottingen 
(Germany).  This  deteriora- 
tion begins  at  a  temperature 
of  70  degrees  centigrade. 

Stoves. — Of  the  many  dif- 
ferent kinds  of  stoves  adapted 
for  the  schoolroom  the  Meid- 
inger  deserves  description. 
Figures  14  and  16  illustra.te  its 
construction.  There  is  acjd- 
indrical  body  with  a  firebox, 
Fu,  composed  of  skeleton  iron 
rings,  a  neckpiece  H,  with  a 
door,  the  opening  of  which  can 
l)e  regulated  laterally  to  con- 
trol combustion,  and  which 
can  be  opcncnl  from  above  like 
a  lid  for  the  removal  of  ashes. 
The  coal  (egg  or  small  coal) 
is  put  in  at  F  and  lighted 
while  Z  is  open.  When  the 
coal  burns  F  is  to  be  closed 
and  Z  opened  laterally  to  regulate  the  heat  as  it  is 
wanted.  M  and  M'  are  the  tin  casings  between 
which  the  warmed  air  ascends;  if  the  vent  S  is  closed. 


Fig.  10.— The  Meidin- 
gcr  stove,  iiiteriur  view, 
showing  ventilating  sys- 
tem . 


38  SCHOOL  HYGIENE 

FA  will  be  open  aiul  fresh  outdoor  air  then  conies 
through  the  conduit  L;  this  air  circulates  in  the  space 
between  the  stove  and  its  casings.  If  S  is  opened, 
then  the  door  ]*^A  closes  the  conduit  L  and  only 
room  air  circulates  between  M  and  M',  i.e.,  there  is 
no  ventilation  whatever.  This  latter  procedure, 
therefore,  should  only  be.  undertaken  before  or  after 
school  hours;  in  very  cold  weather  the  regulator  Z  may 
be  almost  wholly  closed  after  school  session,  leaving 
only  a  very  small  slit-like  opening  so  that  the  fire  may 
burn  the  whole  night  through.  This  will  insure  a 
warm  room  in  the  morning,  with  a  minimum  consump- 
tion of  coal.  K  is  a  little  ventilation  box  which  when 
open  sends  the  air  of  the  room  directly  into  the 
chimney.  This  practical  ventilating  stove,  which 
never  needs  cleaning  for  soot,  may  also  be  so  placed 
that  the  firing  and  ventilation  can  be  controlled  from 
the  corridor,  as  shown  in  Fig.  15,  with  the  advantage 
that  no  fuel  or  ashes  need  be  l^rought  into  the  school- 
room. In  that  case,  the  outdoor  air  comes  in  through 
an  opening  in  the  outside  wall,  as  shown  in  the  plan, 
and  enters  the  room  at  L  (Fig.  15).  To  secure  good 
management  of  the  Meidinger  stove,  the  directions 
for  its  operation  should  l^e  easily  accessible.  Where 
the  heating  is  l)y  stoves,  care  should  be  taken  in 
planning  the  school  building  to  have  a  separate 
chimney  for  every  stove. 

Gas  Heaters. — The  advantages  of  heating  by  gas 
have  of  late  brought  this  method  into  popularity 
even  in  schools.  The  advantages  are,  cleanliness, 
convenience,  and  the  ease  with  which  gas  heaters 
may  be  regulated  as  well  as  started  and  shut  off;  but, 


THK  SC^HOOLPIOUSE 


:iu 


on  the  other  h;iii(l,  \\\c  cost  of  gas  h(>ating  is  often 
prohibitive.  The  ordinary  gas  stove  used  in  the  home 
is  not  adapted  for  the  schooh'ooni,  but  a  nuni))er  of 
specially  constructed  heaters  exist,  ah  based  on  a 
special  scientific  princii)le.  'rh(>  attempt  should 
not  be  made  to  introchun^  gas  heating  into  old  school- 
houses.  Gas  heating  requires  specnal,  very  narrow 
chimneys    (10    centimeters    wide)    and    the    walls    of 


Fk;.   17. — Steam  heating. 

the  chimney  must  be  constructed  of  building  materials 
especially  adapted  for  this  i)urpose,  as  the  combustion 
of  a  cubic  meter  of  gas  generates  somewhat  over  one 
kilogram  of  water  in  the  form  of  vapor  which  contains 
corroding  chemical  substances.  With  the  old,  wide 
chimney  there  is  a  possibility  of  the  vapor  settling 
on  the  walls,  saturating  them,  and  in  combination 
with  other  products  starting  disintegrating  processes 
in  the  chimney. 


40  SCHOOL  HYGIENE 

Central  heating  l)y  steam  or  hot  water  is  the  most 
practicable  system  for  large  schools. 

Steam  Heating. — ^The  principle  of  low-pressure 
steam  heating  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  17.  There  is  a 
boiler  (V)  in  the  cellar,  from  which  pipes  (M)  lead  to 
the  various  rooms,  and  radiators  (R)  give  out  warmth 
in  the  rooms.  When  the  steam  has  again  been  pre- 
cipitated into  water,  it  descends  by  means  of  other 
pipes  (broken  line).  It  is  also  possible  to  elaborate 
this  system  into  the  low  pressure  hot-air  steam  heat- 
ing by  using  the  steam  from  the  boiler  in  the  cellar 
to  warm  a  big  heater  which  receives  fresh  outdoor 
air  through  a  vent,  warms  this  air  and  sends  it  by 
conduits  to  the  rooms.  In  particularly  cold  rooms, 
separate  heaters,  all  supplied  from  the  same  boiler 
in  the  cellar,  may  be  set  up.  This  system  has  re- 
placed the  old-time  hot-air  heating,  which  possessed 
the  disadvantages  of  carrying,  in  addition  to  the 
warmed  air,  various  gases  generated  by  the  burned 
dust,  and  when  the  brickwork  of  the  furnace  became 
loosened,  also  smoke  into  the  room.  Ventilation, 
however,  is  nicely  secured  in  the  case  of  low  pressure 
steam  heating  by  means  of  fresh-air  conduits  which 
bring  the  air  from  out  of  doors  directly  to  the  registers, 
where  it  is  warmed  and  sent  off  into  the  rooms. 
This  plan  does  away  with  the  old  difficulties  ex- 
perienced with  the  combined  hot-air  heating  and 
ventilation. 

Hot-water  Heating. — The  requirements  for  hot- 
water  heating  are  similar  to  those  for  steam.  As 
shown  in  Fig.  17,  the  water  is  heated  in  the  boiler, 
it  ascends  by  pipes  to  a   tank    on    the    upper   floor, 


THE  SCIIOOLlIorSE  11 

goes  from  tlicro  to  the  tooiiiS;  giving  off  warmth,  ami 
sinks  back  to  the  furnace.  The  advantage  of  the  hot- 
water  system  is,  that  the  radiators  retain  their  lieat 
longer  than  with  steam  heating;  but  tlu^  cost  of  in- 
stallation is  higher,  and  there  is  the  ])ossibility  that 
.the  water  in  the  pipes  may  freeze  in  winter,  es- 
pecially during  the  Christmas  vacation.  Recently 
a  device  has  been  invented  for  the  more  rapid  cir- 
culation of  the  water  in  the  pipes. 

One  point  in  connection  with  central  heating  is 
important;  there  must  be  no  niggardliness  or  stinting 
in  installation.  Furthermore,  the  person  in  charge  of 
the  heating  should  be  competent  and  intelligent,  per- 
manently employed,  not  one  temporarily  (Migaged 
who  is  obliged  to  seek  other  work  in  summer.  Better 
employ  a  man  the  whole  year,  in  summer  time  for 
cleaning  in  the  schoolhouse,  and  engage  a  new  person 
for  cleaning  purposes  in  the  winter.  To  achieve  the 
best  possible  management,  the  heating  and  lighting 
arrangements  should  be  subject  to  the  direction  of 
one  who  can  give  intelligent  and  expert  supervision, 
as  for  instance,  the  instructor  in  physics.  The  com- 
fort of  the  school  population  depends  upon  properly 
managed  heating,  lighting  and  ventilation,  and 
the  significance  of  these  from  the  standpoint  of  health 
is  paramount. 

4.  The  Cla&sroom  and  Its  Equipment 

Much  of  what  has  been  said  before  underlies,  rein- 
forces and  will  be  repeated  to  good  purpose  under  this 
heading.     The  whole  question  of  classroom  arrange- 


42  SCHOOL  HYGIENE 

ment  is  so  involved  and  interact i<jnary  tluit  it  is  not 
always  possible  to  isolate  and  discuss  separate  aspects 
of  the  problem. 

The  most  serious  hygienic  consideration  with  regard 
to  the  school  is  this,  that  a  relatively  large  number  of 
individuals  must  be  confined  for  a  considerable  period 
of  time  in  one  room.  When  we  ask,  what  shall  be 
the  size  of  that  room,  the  answer  hygienically  con- 
sidered must  be,  the  larger  the  better,  because  of  the 
better  air.  But  practically,  the  size  of  the  classroom 
is  determined  by  the  following  conditions:  the  carrying 
capacity  of  the  instructor's  voice,  the  distance  at 
which  the  desks  can  be  placed  from  the  blackboard, 
and  the  number  of  pupils  which  a  teacher  can  instruct. 
The  width  of  the  room  is  controlled  by  the  amount 
of  light  which  penetrates  to  the  farthest  desk.  The 
greater  the  width,  the  higher  must  be  the  ceiling, 
but  the  higher  the  room,  the  more  difficult  it  will  be 
to  heat,  and  the  greater  will  also  be  the  cost  of 
construction. 

Size  of  Classroom. — Considering  all  these  condi- 
tions, it  is  safe  to  conclude  that  a  classroom  9  meters 
long,  6  meters  wide,  and  4  meters  high,  is  most 
practicable.  In  a  room  of  these  dimensions  50  pupils 
can  be  seated  in  good-sized,  two-seated  benches  (cf.  p. 
89,  also  Fig.  18) ;  that  is  really  a  large  number  and  a 
greater  can  not  be  accommodated  with  comfort.  Un- 
happily, conditions  as  we  frequently  find  them  lapse 
far  below  this  ideal,  to  the  detriment  of  teacher  and 
pupils.  In  many  highly  cultured  communities,  mat- 
ters of  expense  and  equipment  are  still  patterned  after 
the  demands    of    a  time  which  included  no  hygienic 


THE  SCHOOLHOUSE 


43 


considerations.  It  is  not  uhviiys  possible  to  recon- 
struct; hence  it  can  not  be  too  emphatically  urK('<l  tiiat 
in  young  communities  which  are  still  in  tiie  jjcriod  of 
forming  and  developing  their  school  systems,  these 
matters  should  receive  careful  thought,  in  order  that 


rn 


K. 


05    0 


_i_ 


5iti 


Fig.  18.— Plan  of  a  schoolroom  with  benches  each  accomodat- 
ing two  pupils. 

sufficient  funds  may  be  appropriated  to  carry  out  such 
hygienic  plans. 

The  most  desirable  ratio  of  length  to  the  width  of 
the   schoolroom   is  3:2.     Of   course,   the   limit   of   9 


44  SCHOOL  HYGIENE 

meters  for  the  lengtli  of  a  room  applies  only  to  class- 
rooms where  the  voice  of  the  speaker  plays  the  im- 
portant role;  it  does  not  hold  for  rooms  Avhere  draw- 
ing is  taught  or  for  gymnasiums,  where  height  and 
width  are  more,  or  at  least  equally  important. 

Walls  and  Ceiling. — All  corners,  those  of  walls  and 
ceiling,  walls  and  the  floor,  should  be  rounded,  in 
order  to  facilitate  cleaning.  The  walls  should  l)e 
tinted  a  neutral  tone,  preferably  a  light  green,  the 
upper  third  whitened  to  augment  reflected  light,  and 
the  lower  section,  about  1|  meters  from  the  floor, 
finished  in  a  dura])le  material,  for  instance  in  tiling,  as 
is  done  in  London  schools,  or  in  cement,  which  may 
be  painted  with  oil  paint.  The  ceilings  should  be  pure 
white.  A  preparation  can  be  used  for  disinfecting 
the  walls  that  is  said  to  retain  its  efficacy  for  a 
considerable  period. 

Floor. — The  floor  should  be  durable,  well  joined, 
not  dust  retaining,  and  eas\^  to  clean.  Soft  wood  is 
to  be  condemned;  it  splinters,  gets  into  the  mops,  and 
is  a  continual  harborer  of  dust.  Hard  wood  should 
always  be  chosen.  Prepared  beech  wood  and  Ameri- 
can pitch  pine  are  to  be  recommended;  they  are 
cheaper  than  oak,  which,  of  course,  is  the  most  durable 
of  all.  When  laid  in  the  usual  mosaic  pattern  these 
woods  will  give  good  wear.  If  the  floor  planks  have 
joints  which  do  not  fit  tightly,  the  yawning  places 
should  1)0  scraped  and  trowelled  with  a  mixture  of 
fresh  curds  and  slaked  lime  in  the  proportion  of  five 
to  one.  The  result  is  a  casein  cement  with  lime, 
which  is  as  hard  as  stone,  and  impermeable  to  water. 
Any    coloring,  for    example,    ochre,  may    be    added. 


THE  SC'HOOLHorSK  45 

Unless  this  is  done,  tlu;  openings  will  haiWoi'  inoist-iue 
after  every  cleaning,  creating  a  situation  favorable 
for  the  breeding  of  bacteria  and  vermin. 

Ordinary  wood  flot)rs  require  surface  treatment. 
The  cheapest  way  is  to  have  the  floors  thoroughly 
washed  and  dried  and  then  painted  with  a,  thin  coat 
of  coal  tai-.  ^rhis  tar  can  be  procured  at  any  gas  plant 
and  can  l)e  applied  after  warming  over  a  gentle  flame, 
not  more  than  -iO  degrees  centigrade,  and  since  it 
must  have  that  temperature  when  being  applied  it  is 
best  to  keep  the  vessel  during  use  in  a  kettle  of  water 
at  40  degrees.  As  the  tar  retains  its  odor  for  some 
time,  the  work  should  be  done  during  a  school  vaca- 
tion. The  oiling  of  floors  is  to  l)e  recommended,  for 
good  specimens  of  dustless  oils  have  proved  effectual 
in  holding  down  the  dust,  which  the  movements  of 
the  children  otherwise  keeps  in  circulation.  In  clean- 
ing, the  dust  is  swept  into  little  balls  b}^  means  of  a 
hard  broom.  The  oiling  nmst  be  renew^ed  three  times 
a  year  or  oftener  if  there  is  a  great  deal  of  dust.  But 
notwithstanding  the  great  hygienic  value  of  oiled 
floors,  they  are  not  popular  with  women  teachers 
who  wear  long  skirts.  This  nuisance  to  the  teachers 
could  be  avoided  in  some  measure  if  a  definite  area 
around  the  teacher's  seat  were  left  free  from  oil. 
Again,  footprints  show  ver}''  easily  on  the  clear  surface 
of  the  corridors.  Because  of  these  drawbacks,  floor 
coverings  such  a  Xylolith  or  linoleum  are  sometimes 
chosen.  Xylolith  w'ould  serve  the  purpose  well  for 
it  is  a])le  to  withstand  wear,  but  it  is  not  a  good  conduc- 
tor of  heat  and  therefore  makes  the  floor  too  cold. 
Linoleum,  which  is  a  mixture  of  cork  and  oxydized 


46  SCHOOL  HYGIENE 

flaxsPf-d  oil  with  resin  and  coloring  matter  added, 
makes  a  very  good  floor  covering,  but  it  is  expensive 
and  it  requires  care:  the  padding  underneath  must  be 
very  smooth  and  quite  dry  and  the  linoleum,  which 
should  be  of  a  good  firm  quality,  must  be  absolutely 
dry  before  it  is  laid. 

The  School  Desk. — The  bugbear  of  school  hygiene 
for  a  long  time  has  been  the  school  desk,  or  the  desk 
form,  as  it  is  called  in  England.     Naturally,  the  first 
requirement  is  that  the  desk  shall  be  adapted  to  the 
user  and  yet  allow  him  a  good  deal  of   freedom  in 
movement.     The  child  must  be  al)le  to  assume  a  freer 
posture  in  reading  than  while  writing,  when  he  must 
necessarily  be  in  a  somewhat  cramped  position;  he 
must  be  able  to  stand  up  and  sit  down  with  comfort, 
to  get  in  and  out  without  difficulty.     These  matters 
are  of  prime  importance.     But  the  attempt  to  enforce 
good  posture  solely  by  means  of  the  school  desk  must 
be  abandoned  at  the  outset.     The  desk  should  not 
have   sharp   corners,   w'hich   may   cause   bruises.     It 
should  be  such  as  not  to  render  cleaning  difficult,  nor 
should  the  forms  be  of  a  shape  to  interfere  with  the] 
teacher's  vision  of  the  pupils,  and  lastly,  the  desks' 
should  be  practically  noiseless.     After  conforming  to ; 
these  requirements,  it  is  essential  that  the  desk  form'] 
does  not  take  up  too  much  room,  nor  must  it  be  tooj 
expensive. 

To  maintain  a  sitting  position  for  a  long  period  ofj 
time  is  in  itself  unhygienic,  particularly  for  children; 
to  sit  long  in  an  upright  position  requires  constant  i 
effort,  even  for  adults,  and  the  difficulty  is  increased 
when  the  child  is  sitting  on  a  bench  which  is  not  suited ' 


Fig.  20. — Moultlirop  movable  .■uid  adjustable  school  chair. 
Model  H,  niaiiut'actured  bj'  Laiigslow,  Fowler  Co.,  Kochester, 
N.  Y. 


TllK  SCHUOLHOUSE  47 

to  his  hcij2;lit.  In  consoquenco,  ho  is  ()])lif50(l  to  as- 
sume positions  which  can  not  fail  to  be  detrimental  to 
health,  i.e.,  the  development  of  the  thorax  is  hampered 
and  there  is  interference  with  respiration,  circulation 
of  the  blood,  and  (lifj;(>stion,  besides  possible  injuries  to 
the  spine  and  the  eyesight.  It  should  be  the  serious 
aim  of  the  school  never  to  be  the  cause  of  any  such 
injuries  to  health.  To  overcome  the  difficulty  of 
long  sitting  it  has  been  advocated  that  alternate  sitting 
and  standing  be  the  rule  in  school,  and  certain  types  of 
German,  French  and  American  desks  (of.  Fig.  20) 
which  can  ])e  readily  converted  from  sitting  into 
standing  forms  are  available.  But  long  standing  is 
even  more  fatiguing  than  sitting,  and  is  not  to  be 
recommended.  Fig.  20  has  a  sliding  desk  top  which 
can  be  pushed  aside  at  will,  thereby  allowing  the 
child  to  stand  immediately  and  without  difficulty.* 
Let  us  assume  that  a  new  schoolhouse  is  to  be  built 
on  the  site  of  an  old  one.  In  order  to  have  the  new 
desks  of  the  right  dimensions,  the  children  of  all 
classes  ought  to  be  measured  before  the  desks  are 
ordered,  and  the  new  school  furnished  with  desks  of 
various  sizes  to  fit  the  children.  At  the  beginning  of 
the  next  school  year,  the  previous  assortment  of  desks 
in  the  rooms  will  probably  not  answer  the  purpose 
very  well,  the  assortment  of  children  will  })e  differ- 
ent each  year  and  there  may  not  be  as  many  chil- 
dren of  a  certain  size  as  there  were  in  the  previous 
year.     If  one  mixes  them  again  in  the  second  half 

*This  model,  the  Moulthrop  movable  and  adjustable  school  chair, 
is  made  by  LaiiKslow,  Fowior  Co.  (Tiiited  States),  and  is  indorsed 
by  Madame  Montessori  in  her  school  methods. 


48 


sc;hool  hygiene 


8 


year  and  compares  their  sizes  with  the  various  sizes  of 
school  desks,  it  will  be  found  that  a  number  of  children 
in  the  age  of  rapid  growing  have  grown  out  of  their 
standard  of  desk.  Even  in  small  country  towns  the 
desks  of  the  school  should  certainly  not  be  ordered 
before  the  children  have  been  meas- 
ured, and  if  possible,  measurements 
•should  be  made  at  the  beginning  and 
the  middle  of  the  school  year.  Un- 
fortunately the  selection  of  the  desk 
sizes  is  frequently  left  to  the  manu- 
facturer. 

Under  favorable  conditions  a  half 
yearly  measuring  of  the  school  popu- 
lation and  seating  according  to  the  re- 
sults found  is  excellent;  it  is  a  con- 
venient, easily  to  be  obtained,  and 
BC^Bl26-13't  fi'om  the  point  of  view  of  health  a 
^^^  \  reasonable  exaction.     The  work  can 

'--^.„^^  be  done  very  quickly  by  means  of  a 

"'^  measuring  rod,  which  the  author  de- 
scribed in  1896  and  recommended  for 
manufacture.  Fig.  19  shows  one  of 
these  rods  designed  for  use  in  the 
schools  of  Vienna.  The  measuring 
stick  must  have  divisions  marked 
off  for  the  various  sizes  of  desk;  the 
teacher  records  opposite  the  name  of  the  child  the 
corresponding  size  of  the  desk.  Dufestel  of  Paris  has 
constructed  a  measuring  stick  which  automatically 
records  the  height  of  the  pupil  in  millimeters. 

If  it  is  formd  that  in  one  classroom  there  are  desks 


maud 
more 


miTt 


Ibb-m 


I'fS-lS't 


Ub-lkk 


126 


Fig.  19.— 
Measuring  rod 
numbered  for 
the  various  sizes 
of  desk  forms. 


Fu;.  21. — The  "Princeton"  :Kljust;il)lr  desk  and  chair, 
maimfuctvircd  by  The  Xi'w  Jersey  Sch.Kil-rhurch  I'unulure 
Co.,  Trenton,  X.  .1. 


THE  SCIlooLIlorsl':  10 

wliicii  ilo  nut  (il  the  cliililicii  in  lliiit  room,  the  desks 
should  be  exchangcul  for  others  obtained  from  other 
classrooms. 

Adjustable  School  Furniture. — The  ideal  desk  is  one 
with  adjustal)le  parts  and  which  can  be  fitted  to  the 
child.  Sueli  sin<i;ie  desks  (Fi<^.  21  and  22)  are  used  in 
many  schools  in  Ch'eat  Britain  and  the  United  States; 
or  where  their  exclusive  use  is  not  prescribed,  the 
requirement  is  made  that  at  least  one-third  of  the 
desks  in  the  new  school  shall  be  of  this  type.  Adjust- 
able school  furniture  has  also  begun  to  be  introduced 
in  Germany,  and  is  being  used  in  a  small  number  of 
schools  in  conjunction  with  the  older  type  of  desk.* 
Desks  which  can  be  adjusted  without  a  screw  or  key 
(Fig.  22)  are  better  than  those  for  which  an  imjilement 
is  needed.  One  of  the  oldest  adjustable  desk  forms  is 
that  put  on  the  nuirket  by  Hansen  in  Copenhagen; 
it  has  a  movable  foot  rest  to  adjust  the  height 
of  the  seat  to  the  body  of  the  pupil,  and  a 
movable  back  to  adjust  the  "difference"  and  the 
depth  of  the  seat.  This  type  of  desk  has  given 
good  service  in  a  number  of  schools  of  Denmark  and 
received  high  commendation  in  a  report  of  the  Danish 
school  health  commission  (1884). 

In  secondary  schools,  where  the  classrooms  are  not 
always  used  for  the  same  grade  in  succeeding  years,  or 
in  schools  where  they  are  made  use  of  for  different 
purposes — for  adult  evening  classes,  assemblies  or  for 

*A(l.iust;il)le  desks  are  produced  in  GcriiKiiiy  liy  Elsasser, 
Fuhrmaiin  &  Hauss,  Kottmann,  Lickroth  &  Co.,  Zichokkc;  in 
the  United  States  by  the  Now  Jersey  School-Church  Furniture 
Co.,  the  American  S(>:it,inj;  ('o.,  and  othor.3. 


50  SCPIOOL  HYGIENE 

entortainiiients — th(^  a(lju.stal)lc  desk  is  by  far  the 
best,  especially  if  it  can  be  quickl}^  arranged.  A  new 
model  from  a  London  manufacturer  is  made  of 
wood,  is  adjustable  by  means  of  springs  in  the 
legs  of  the  desk  and  bench,  and  is  arranged  so  the 
top  can  be  pushed  away  or  brought  nearer  to  the 
body.  The  correct  height  of  desk  and  seat  can '  be 
secured  very  simply  by  pressure  upon  the  spring 
and  then  raising  or  lowering  the  parts  in  question. 
When  a  desk  of  this  type  is  used,  there  is  no  need 
of  taking  measurements  and  notes;  the  older 
children  especially  do  not  require  much  instruction  in 
adjusting,  with  the  help  of  a  fellow  student,  the  desk 
and  chair  to  suit  them.  The  charm  of  newness  Avhich 
makes  the  pupils  want  to  p\n,y  with  these  adjustable 
desks  will  not  last  long;  children  do  not  want  to  play 
with  ventilation  valves  or  windows  or  doors  although 
these  things  are  movable  too.  This  difficulty  will  be 
lessened  if  the  children  are  not  admitted  to  the  room 
before  beginning  of  class  nor  during  recess  periods 
when  the  teacher  is  not  present. 

Aside  from  these  and  other  newer  desks,  the  non- 
adjustable  desk  forms  are  used  a  great  deal  in  Europe, 
and  from  three  to  ten  different  sizes  may  be  pro- 
cured. There  are  Imndreds  of  models  on  the  market. 
When  the  desk  can  be  found  in  a  greater  number  of 
sizes,  say  from  eight  to  ten,  it  is  easier  to  choose  a 
more  fitting  size  for  the  body  than  if  there  are  only 
three  sizes  of  desks,  but  the  practical  difficulties  ex- 
perienced with  so  many  chfferent  sizes  are  increased. 
If  a  teacher  has  a  room  with  desks  of  different  sizes 
which  are  not  bought  after  the  al)ove  descril^ed  meas- 


Horizontal  Adjustment  of  Top  at  will  of  occupant. 

Adapted  to  varying  uses. 

The  only  scientific  and  practical  Plus  and  Minus  ad- 
justment. 

Top  has  Horizontal  Adjustment  of  3'/i  inches. 

Inkwell  exposed  when  top  withdrawn  for  writing; 
covered  and  protected  when  top  returned  for  study. 


Vertical  ad- 
justment of 
Chair  Seat 

Top  of  Seat 
from  Floor: 
No.l.l8i^'lol5" 
No.3.16  tol2J-a  ■ 
Nu.5. 13V  toll" 
Not  adjusted 
by  occupan 


AMERICAN  STEEL  ADJUSTABLE  BOX  DESK  WITH  SLIDING  TOP 

CHAIR    EQUIPPEIJ    WITH    AUJLSTAUl.E    BACK    SUHPOKT 


FUl.  22. — Adjustable    desk    and    chair,   i>i;u!;ifa<'tiir<il     liy    tlie 
Aiiii'iicaii  .'>catiii^  ( '()iiii)any,  ( 'liicatjo.  111. 


THE  SCHOOLIlorSFv  51 

uring  of  pupils,  nothing  can  he  done  but  to  distribute 
these  desks  accorcUng  to  their  dimensions,  form  the 
pupils  in  a  row  according  to  their  heigiit,  and  seat 
them  in  that  order  in  the  desks.  Special  attention 
must  always  be  paid  to  the  nearsighted  and  the  deaf. 
The  resulting  arrangement,  the  best  possible;  under 
those  circumstances,  is  naturally  not  always  satis- 
factory. 

Desk  Dimensions. — It  only  remains  to  say  a  few 
words  about  the  constituent  parts  of  the  school  form 
and  their  relations  to  one  another.  The  seat  should 
be  just  so  high  from  the  floor  that  the  upper  part  of 
the  leg  is  horizontal  and  the  lower  part  perfectly 
perpendicular  when  the  foot  is  placed  firmly  on  the 
floor.  If  the  seat  is  too  high,  the  nerves  and  blood 
vessels  on  the  under  part  of  the  thigh  are  compressed, 
particularly  those  near  the  edge  of  the  seat,  and  the 
child  is  apt  to  slide  forward  and  to  lapse  from  the 
erect  posture.  If  the  seat  is  too  low,  the  thighs 
will  be  pressed  against  the  abdomen.  The  depth  of  the 
seat,  i.e.,  the  distance  from  the  forepart  to  the  rear, 
is  influenced  by  the  length  of  the  th'gh;  the  depth 
must  be  such  that  the  child's  back  reaches  the  back 
rest,  a  support  of  two-thirds  oi"  the  thigh  is  amply 
sufficient.  The  position  is  firmer  when  the  seat  is 
slightly  curved  as  shown  in  Fig.  23. 

The  level  ot  the  desk  top  should  be  in  the  plane  of  the 
sitter's  elbow  when  the  arm  is  hanging  tlown.  If  the 
top  is  too  low,  the  child  must  bend  down  to  write, 
assuming  a  position  which  is  injurious  to  the  spine, 
the  chest,  and  to  the  respiratory  and  digestive  organs. 
If  the  desk  is  too  high,  he  uses  his  eyes  too  near  the 


52 


SCHOOL  HYGIENE 


work,  and  the  arm  can  not  be  he'd  near  enough  to  the 
body  when  writing.  The  question  of  the  tilt  of  the 
desk  will  be  considered  later. 

The  back  rest  is  absolutely  necessary  because  a 
child  can  not  sit  for  any  length  of  time  without 
some  support.  The  rest  may  be  of  various  heights, 
but  it  should  at  least  support  the  lower  third  of  the 
spine.     At  this  point  we  reach  a  real  difficulty^,  for 

if  one  surveys  classes  of 
children  in  a  school,  one 
notices  how  seldom  the  back 
of  the  seat  is  used  as  a  sup- 
port. The  fact  of  the  matter 
is  that  a  back  rest  is  comfor- 
table only  when  tilted  back- 
ward to  a  considerable  degree, 
as  in  an  easy  chair;  but  if 
this  were  done  in  the  school- 
room, the  seat  must  also  be 
tilted  correspondingly  (Fig. 
23)  in  order  to  insure  firm 
seating.  Furthermore,  the 
desk  would  then  have  to  be 
tilted,  otherwise  there  would  be  a  strain  on  the 
eyes,  for  a  gnvxt  angle  of  vision  is  unbearable,  while 
one  of  about  8  degrees  requires  no  strain  whatever. 
When  reading,  the  pupil  may  hold  the  book  in  his 
hand,  that  is,  in  a  tilted  position;  l)ut  in  writing  the 
tilt  of  the  desk  can  not  be  so  readily  adjusted.  The 
desk  top  can  not  be  tilted  too  much,  otherwise  the 
arm  must  be  held  in  such  a  way  that  the  ink  will 
not  run  from  th(    pen.     This  would  be  very  tiring 


Fig.  23.— a    desk     de- 
signed by  A.  Lorenz. 


Till':  sciiooLirousE  53 

to  llii-  arm,  even  for  a  siiorl  time,  but  sliould  tlicn; 
he  no  possibility  of  change  it  would  bo  unbearable. 
The  tilt  of  the  seat  involves  many  other  prol)lems. 
The  b(>st  back  icst  has  a  uniform  slant.  Ortho- 
pedists formerly  reeonunended  a  projection  to  curve 
into  the  lower  iiart  of  the  back,  until  Schulthess  of 
Zurich  showed  that  in  a  sitting  posture  the  natural 
curves  of  the  sjiine  are  not  as  i)ronnun('ed  as  in  stand- 


Fifi.  24. — Distances  botwocn  scat  aiitl  desk.  S  =  seat, 
D    =    desk.     The   cut   to   tlie   left   shows   plus   distance,   the 

iiiidtllc  null  (lislaiicc  and  llic  one  to  tlic  ri^ht  minus  distance. 

ing.  Recently,  Piesen  of  Prague  has  shown  that 
this  wooden  projection  may  do  absolute  harm  to 
children;  in  a  number  of  children  so  placed  albumin 
was  occasional!}'  found  in  the  urine.  However,  a  back 
rest  is  absolutely  needed  for  the  supi^ort  of  the  lum- 
bar region  of  the  spine. 

If  as  in  Fig.  24  a  perpendicular  dotted  line  is  dropj^ed 
from  the  edge  of  the  desk  (D)  to  the  floor,  this  line 
will  meet  the  edge  of  the  seat  (S),  or  go  to  either 
side.  This  dotted  line  constitutes  the  "distance." 
It  is  immediately  clear  that  what  is  denoted  as  "plus- 
distance"  is  bad  because  it  demands  bending  forward 
during  work,  while  the  "minus-distance"  is  the  proper 
oiK^  foi'  writing,  but  restricts  the  inovcMucMits  in  other 


54 


SCHOOL  HYGIENE 


occupations  and  prevents  the  child  from  standing 
up.  To  meet  this  difficulty,  distance  adjusters  have 
been  designed  in  order  that  the  bench  can  be  so  placed 
as  to  permit  the  child  to  write  at  minus,  and  to  sit 
at  plus  distance  from  the  desk;  the  latter  distance 
also  permits  of  easy  standing  up  and  ingress  and  egress. 
The  value  of  a  school  desk  is  greatly  increased  by  these 
distance  adjusters;  schools  which  are  putting  in  new 


^-..••" 


Fig.  2.5. — Movable  desk  top  by 
Schlimp.  For  writing  it  is  inclined 
in  the  dotted  line  a,  6;  at  other  times 
it  is  in  the  line  cd.  The  change  is 
made  easily  and  noiselessly  by  the 
joints,  f,g,k,i. 


Fig.  26.— a  readily 
adjusted  seat  designed 
by  Schenk. 


furniture  should  install  only  desks  so  equipped.  The 
distance  may  be  adjusted  in  various  ways;  the 
desk  top  may  fold  on  itself  (Fig.  27),  or  it 
may  be  pushed  forward  or  backward  (Fig.  23), 
or  drawn  out  and  pushed  back  again  (Fig.  2o);* 
or  the  seat  can  be  turned  up  and  put  back,  or  moved 
forward  and  backward  like  a  pendulum  (Fig.  21  and 

*A  model  possessing  distance  adjusters  in  the  desk  is  shown  in 
Fig.  25.  It  was  invented  by  Schlimp  Brothers  (patent  expired), 
and  is  much  used  in  Austria.  It  is  one  of  the  many  modifications 
of  the  original  adjuster  designed  by  Kunze. 


Fig.  27. — Single  pedestal  desk  conihiiiation,  niaiiufactured 
Keiiiiey   Hros.   A-   Wolkiiis,   Boston,    Mass. 


I)V 


THE  .SC'HOOLHOUSE  55 

26).  Tho  seat  ;i(ljust iiiciit  incrcly  makes  room  for 
the  pupil  to  rise,  but  does  not  influenee  the  sitting 
distance.  It  is  essential  that  these  adjusters  should 
be  tolerably  noiseless  and  also  that  they  Ix^  of  such 
construction  that  they  do  not  act  as  traps  in  which 
the  hand  may  be  caugiit  and  pinched.  An  adjuster 
like  Fig.  25  has  the  advantage  that  the  pupil  when 
writing  can  easily  set  the  desk  at  minus  distance,  and 
during  the  writing  pauses  can  pusii  the  desk  away 
from  him  for  greater  freedom  in  movement. 

But  still  the  "distance"  referred  to  above  does 
not  entirely  solve  tlie  question,  the  really  significant 
distance  being  that  between  the  slanting  back  rest  and 
the  desk  edge.  For  writing,  this  space  should  be  a 
few  centimeters  greater  than  the  body  thickness  at 
the  chest;  it  should  correspond  to  the  length  of  the 
forearm. 

The  low  desk  forms  of  small  children  are  a  tax  on  the 
teacher,  wlio  must  bend  over  to  see  the  work.  For 
this  reason  such  desk  forms  should  be  placed  on  a 
pedestal  or  the  form  should  be  quite  high,  with  a 
footstool  to  make  the  child  comfortable.  The 
footstool  has  a  disadvantage  in  that  if  tlie  desk 
has  no  movable  "distance"  and  the  child  wishes  to 
stand  for  recitation  he  must  first  step  out.  Exptu'ience 
shows  that  this  inconvenience  frequently  results  in 
the  teacher  not  requiring  the  pupil  to  rise,  and  the 
child  thus  loses  the  opportunity  for  exercise  gained  by 
the  change  of  position — a  distinct  disadvantage  from 
the  standpoint  of  hj^giene. 

In  the  non-adjustable  desk  forms  each  desk  should 
be  attached  to  its  own  chair,  not  a  chair  to  the  desk 


56  SCHOOL  HYGIENE 

beliiiul,  so  that  when  shifting  the  furniture  a  chair 
will  always  correspond  to  its  own  bench.  It  is  better 
to  have  non-adjustable  deskforms  which  accommodate 
but  two  pupils,  for  with  desks  accomodating  only 
two,  each  pupil  can  step  in  and  out,  and  the  teacher 
can  pass  each  place — a  condition  which  does  not  hold 
for  forms  accommodating  more  than  two  pupils. 
The  use  of  desk  forms  accomodating  not  more  than 
two  children  has  been  prescribed  by  law  in  Sweden 
since  1878. 

Movable  Desks. — To  facilitate  the  cleaning  of  the 
floor,  many  ways  have  been  suggested  and  one  of  these 
is  to  make  the  points  of  contact  of  the  desk  with  the 
floor  as  few  and  as  small  as  possible  (Fig.  27).  The 
idea  has  been  developed  in  the  United  States  and  in 
France  since  1877  under  the  "Mittelholm"  principle. 
In  some  places  douljle-seated  desks  were  merely 
turned  over  at  cleaning  time;  this  was  first  done  with 
the  Roux  desk  in  1887,  in  the  Villamont  School  at 
Lausanne  (Switzerland),  and  is  still  done  in  many 
other  places.  In  1893  Rettig  patented  a  movable 
desk  (similar  to  desks  shown  in  Fig.  28)  and  in  1900 
Zollinger  of  Zurich  introduced  the  idea  of  having  whole 
series  of  desks  on  casters,  so  that  they  can  be  readily 
moved  out  of  place.  Different  sorts  of  appliances 
for  rolling  the  forms  have  appt^ared  in  Switze^rland, 
Austria  and  Germany.  One  plan  is  to  have  the  rollers 
of  the  desks  coupled  together  (Fig.  29);  another  plan, 
first  suggested  by  Baudin  of  Geneva,  is  to  have  a  whole 
line  of  desks  on  an  iron  rail  (CI)  in  which  the  rollers 
are  set  (Figs.  30  arul  31).  Thisi)lanof  rolling  away  the 
benches  when  ch^aning  the  floor  is  decidedl}^  the  best, 


Fici.  28. — Benches  (Urania)  designed  l)y  Piaset-ki,  turned  uver 
for  cleaning  the  floor. 


THE  SCHOOLHOUSE  57 

for  with  a  dean  sweep  of  floor  there  are  no  inaccessible 
places.  It  is  easier  to  pusli  the  tiers  to  one  side  than 
to  turn  one  desk  over  the  other,  at  the  same  time  there 
is  no  chmger  of  spilling  the  ink,  although  the  reversible 
desks  do  have  special  inkstands  which  when  carefully 
handled  can  be  turned  over  also.  All  kinds  of  desks 
with  movable  parts  are  better  pushed  than  turned 
over;  furthermore,  iron  desks  also  can  be  rolled  but 
they  would  be  too  heavy  to  turn. 

The  question  as  to  the  injury  which  such  roller 
benches  may  sustain  from  the  children  playing  with 
them  has  alieady  been  rais- 
ed. The  author  personally 
does  not  knowof  any  such 
instances  though  he  has  in- 
quired concerning  this  point 
in  places  where  such  desks 
are  used.     The  outer  edges  1^^ 

of  the  large  jirojecting  roll-       t-       on      t>  n  i  j 

M^-        onx       I       Ti     ,  ^'*'-  ^9.— Rollers    coupled 

ers     (I^lg.     29)     should     be  togot her  for  rows  of  benches, 
rounded    off    so    that    the  fie.signcd  by  Walter. 

floors  will  not  be  scratched.  At  the  Dresden  Inter- 
national Exhibit  a  contrivance*  was  shown  whereby 
the  benches  when  in  use  stand  without  rollers,  but 
are  readily  put  on  rollers  at  cleaning  time. 

When  three  tiers  of  benches  are  pushed  away,  a 
large  floor  space  for  exercise  can  easily  be  had  (Fig. 
31);  this  would  be  impossible  with  stationary  Ixniches, 
or  those  which  can  only  be  turned  over.  In  the  Unitetl 
States  gymnastic  apparatus  arc  arranged  on  rollers 
in  a  similar  way. 

*This  contrivance  is  inaniifactureil  l)v  Lic'<r(>tli  i^'  Co. 


58  SCHOOL  HYGIENE 

Posture. — Associated  with  the  problem  of  seating 
is  that  of  a  correct  sitting  position.  Where  a  school- 
room is  equipped  with  practicable  desk  forms,  a  hy- 
gienic posture  should  be  urged  upon  the  child  from 
the  outset.  A  definite  amount  of  time  should  be 
allowed  for  acquiring  a  good  position  at  the  desk. 
Beginners,  for  instance,  should  not  be  required  to 
assume  the  correct  writing  position  for  more  than  a 
fraction  of  an  hour,  being  permitted  during  the  re- 
mainder of  the  time  to  assume  an  easier  attitude,  for 
to  maintain  a  correct  posture  means  considerable 
work  for  their  muscles.  Parents  can  help  by  admoni- 
tions at  home  and  also  by  purchasing  the  right  kind 
of  a  house  desk  which  the  shops  offer  in  a  variecy  of 
forms,  or  proper  provisions  can  be  made  by  means  of 
a  footstool  and  an  upholstered  chair.  Many  me- 
chanical means  have  been  designed  for  helping  a  child 
to  maintain  an  erect  posture.  The  subject  can  not 
be  discussed  here  in  full,  but  mention  should  be  made 
of  a  device  sold  by  Iberg  in  Basel.  This  is  the  Bril- 
lengeradehalter,  a  spectacle  frame  with  two  black  cellu- 
loid flaps,  which  fall  down  over  the  eyes  when  the 
pupil  bends  over,  but  which  adjust  themselves  and 
uncover  the  eyes  when  he  straightens  up.  Another 
useful  and  inexpensive  device  is  that  introduced 
in  the  Guts-Muthsrealschule  of  Quedlinburg  by  H. 
Lorenz.  It  is  a  light  metal  ring,  about  20  centimeters 
in  diameter,  which  slips  from  the  head  of  the  child 
when  he  tilts  his  head  too  far  forward  or  too  far  to 
one  side.  The  term  Geradezwinger  (upright  forcer) 
does  not  convey  a  pleasant  meaning,  and  its  use 
would  be  objectionable  if  the  teacher  should  forget 


Fio.  30. — A  sclinolrouiii  in  Geneva  with  three  rows  of  two- 
seated  benches  designed  by  Mauchain.  The  benches  are  placed 
on  the  Baudin  rollers. 


Vic,.  31. — The  same  rnoni  as  sliown  in  Fig.  3(1.  'llu'  rows 
"f  benches  have  been  moved  close  together,  to  give  a  large 
free  floor  space. 


THE  SCHOOLHOUSK  59 

to  pay  atti'iition  to  the  fact  tliat  the  child  can  only 
bend  his  head  forward  a  short  distance,  and  the 
contrivance  may  overtax  the  child's  back  and  neck 
muscles. 

Blackboards. — The  l)lackboard  should  be  of  a  dull 
finish,  not  too  higlih'  ]K)lished,  and  so  placed  thai  in 
looking  at  it  the  children  will  not  be  dazzled  by  light 
from  a  ^vindow.  Large  shiny  blackboards  on  the  wall 
opposite  the  windows  are  likely  to  take  away  much 
reflected  light,  as  has  been  shown  by  Gstettncr  of 
Vienna,  th(>refore  dull  ones  Avould  be  more  suitable. 
An  antiseptic  blackboartl,  which  resembles  an  oilcloth 
scroll,  has  recently  come  into  favor  in  New  York  City 
schools. 

Lavatory. — If  the  children  use  chalk  they  should 
have  a  place  where  they  can  wash  their  hands.  It  is 
most  desirable  to  have  the  lavatory  in  another  room, 
in  the  cloak  room,  the  recess  room,  or  tlu^  toilet,  as  has 
already  \)vvn  discussed. 

Expectoration  Receptacles. — The  question  of  dis- 
posing of  the  expectorations  of  the  children  is  a  more 
difficult  one.  Covered  cuspidors  attached  to  the 
walls  are  better  than  those  placed  on  the  floors.  It 
seems  hardly  necessary  to  say  that  expectoration  on 
the  floor  should  never  be  tolerated.  Children  who 
have  to  expectorate  should  be  placed  near  the  cuspidor, 
so  that  when  necessary  they  can  step  to  it  without 
causing  a  disturbance.  Since  Dettweiler  devised  an 
individual  saliva  cup,  many  others  have  been  sug- 
gested. The  question  whether  it  would  be  better  to 
provide  these  for  the  coughing  pupils  or  to  require  the 
parents  to  furnish  them  for  their  children  is  no  difficult 


60  SCHOOL  HYGIENE 

matter  to  decide  Ijy  experimenting;  but  a  highly  cul- 
tured public  is  generalh'  disinclined  to  discuss  matters 
of  this  sort. 

5.  Other  Rooms,  Grounds,  and  Facilities  of  the  School 

Gymnasium. — ^From  the  standpoint  of  hj'giene  the 
gymnasium  is  most  important.  It  must  be  well 
lighted,  convenient,  easily  ventilated  and  suitably 
heated.  It  should  not  be  located  in  the  basement. 
The  apparatus  must  at  all  costs  be  safe  and  the 
wood  work  should  not  splinter,  for  serious  injuries  or 
even  fatalities  may  result  from  neglect  of  these 
requirements.  To  see  that  such  matters  were  at- 
tended to,  in  1895,  the  government  at  Sigmaringen 
(Germany)  ordered  a  yearly  inspection  of  gymnasium 
apparatus.  The  greatest  problem  existing  in  the 
gymnasium  is  the  presence  of  dust.  For  this  reason, 
the  children  should  not  be  allowed  to  enter  in  their 
street  shoes,  nor  should  the  mattresses  in  the  gym- 
nasium be  allowed  to  become  dust  receptacles,  which 
is  hardly  possible  to  avoid  with  cheap  kinds. 

The  floor  covering  must  be  good  (for  instance,  strong 
linoleum),  and  not  slippery.  The  use  of  floor  oils  has 
been  decided  against  by  some  teachers  though  it  is  not 
generally  objectionable,  for  the  gloss  will  disappear 
after  once  using  the  floor  and  the  oil  when  thinly  ap- 
plied can  hardly  be  a  source  of  danger.  It  is  to  be 
recommended  that  in  winter  when  much  dust  may  be 
brought  in  and  no  precautionary  measures  for  its 
prevention  are  taken,  those  exercises  which  would 
cause  a  dissemination  of  the  dust  be  omitted.  The 
author  has  had  occasion  to  inspect  a  new  gymnasium 


THK  SCHOOLIIOUSE  61 

in  a  larg(i  city  where  no  oil  was  used  on  iiie  floors  and 
no  special  shoos  were  worn  by  the  children,  and  where 
such  unhj'gienic  conditions  existed  as  to  make  the 
work  in  the  interest  of  preventing  tul)erculosis  a 
derision.  This  state  of  affairs  in  gynniasiums  is  all 
the  more  remarkable  since  von  Pirquet  has  proved 
that  a  very  high  percentage  of  children  is  infected 
with  tuberculosis,  even  though  the  infection  seldom 
reaches  a  dangerous  stage.  The  question,  then,  may 
well  be  asketl — how  can  a  teacher  manage  to  keep  the 
room  free  from  dust,  w^hen  the  streets  are  dirty  and 
oil  is  not  used  on  the  floors,  and  no  change  of  shoes 
on  the  part  of  the  children  is  required?  Even 
w^hen  care  is  taken  to  wipe  the  shoes  at  entrance,  it 
is  impossible  to  exclude  all  dust.  In  view  of  this  fact, 
it  seems  neglectful  to  do  without  floor  oil. 

The  gymnasium  should  have  its  own  cloak  room,  a 
convenient,  indoor  toilet,  and  if  possible,  its  own 
lavatory.  Physical  exercises  carried  on  in  the  open 
air  are  preferable  to  work  in  an  indoor  gymnasium, 
for  conditions  in  the  open  air  are  better  adapted  to 
meet  the  increased  demand  made  upon  the  lungs. 
Hence,  an  open-air  gymnasium  situated  in  the  school 
grounds  partly  roofed  over,  but  op(>n  at  the  sides,  is 
ideal  for  this  purpose.  In  a  large  school,  when  choosing 
the  site  for  this  outdoor  gymnasium,  it  should  be  re- 
membered that  close  proximity  to  the  classrooms  may 
disturb  the  w^ork  of  instruction.  Such  details  are  all 
directly  connected  with  the  planning  of  the  ])uilding. 

Playgrounds. — In  this  connection  the  general  prob- 
lem of  the  recreation  place  comes  up  for  discussion. 
The  recreation  room  has  already  ])een  briefly  spoken 


62  SCHOOL  HYGIENE 

of  and  the  indoor  and  outdoor  gymnasiums  have 
been  mentioned  in  the  preceding  paragraph.  In  every 
case,  a  place  in  the  open  is  very  desirable  where 
pupils  can  spend  their  free  time  when  the  weather 
permits  and  when  waiting  for  school  to  begin.  A 
playground  should  be  as  large  as  the  available  grounds 
permit;  in  small  towns  at  least  5  square  meters 
should  be  allowed  for  each  child,  and  in  even  the 
smallest  rural  communities  the  total  play  space 
allowed  should  not  be  less  than  200  square  meters. 
In  the  most  populous  parts  of  large  cities,  the  minimum 
should  never  be  less  than  1  square  meter  per  child. 
The  difficulty  may  be  met  in  part  by  using  the  roof,  as 
is  done  in  London  and  New  York.  Fig.  32  shows  the 
roof  playground  of  a  school  building  in  New  York  as 
designed  by  Snyder.  These  roofs  are  used  in  that 
city  on  hot  evenings  as  recreation  places  for  mothers 
and  children. 

Where  it  is  possible  to  have  the  yard  large  enough 
to  be  used  as  a  playground  and  as  an  ice  field  in  winter, 
for  instance  in  the  smaller  towns,  a  good  step  has  been 
taken  toward  the  healthy  rearing  of  children.  In  the 
crowded  districts  of  large  cities  where  it  is  not  possible 
to  have  the  playground  next  to  the  school,  the  aim 
should  be  to  provide  an  open  space  elsewhere  for  the 
children  of  each  school,  one  easily  accessible  by  car 
lines  at  a  minimum  rate  of  transportation,  plus  a  short 
walk. 

The  way  of  progress  in  the  matter  of  the  play  of 
children  has  not  been  easy  in  Europe  during  the  past 
generation.  It  is  a  long  step  from  the  epoch  of  the 
decree  of  1882,  effected  by  the  Prussian  Minister  of 


o 

■r. 


THIO  SCnOOLHOUSE  63 

Education,    von    Oosslcr,    to    tho    nHiuircincnt    of    a 
dofiiut(>  afternoon  per  week  set  aside  for  play. 

School  Gardens. — A  school  garden,  wiiere  it  can  be 
had,  is  to  bo  recommended  from  the  liygienic  stand- 
point. It  serves  when  next  the  school  house  to  keep 
the  air.  pure  and  alYords  opportunity  for  healthful  out- 
door occupation. 

School  Baths. — Among  the  many  products  of  school 
welfare  work,  the  school  bath  takes  high  rank,  be- 
cause of  its  hygicniic  significance.  To  the  city  of 
Gottingen  ((Jermany)  belongs  the  credit  of  having 
introduced,  twenty-five  years  ago,  the  first  school 
baths,  an  example  which  has  since  then  been  w'idely 
followed.  The  need  for  this  extension  of  the  field  of 
education  is  shown  by  the  following  extract  from  a 
Gottingen  report,  "We  state  the  shocking  fact  that 
with  the  exception  of  the  face  and  hands,  not  a  drop 
of  water  touches  year  iihcr  year  the  bodies  of  a 
great  majority  of  the  pupils  in  our  German  schools." 
Naturally,  the  argument  is  frequently  advanced  that 
these  are  not  matters  of  the  school,  but  rather  of  the 
home.  It  is  an  argument  that  needs  constant  refuta- 
tion !)>'  the  statement  that  very  possibl>-  in  an  earlier 
time  the  present  and  generally  recognized  right  of  the 
state  to  impose  compulsory  education,  may  have 
been  regarded  in  the  same  light  in  which  obligatory 
cleanliness  is  now  viewed. 

The  school  bath  referred  to  above  is  the  shower  l)ath, 
which  requires  little  room,  and  not  much  heating  or 
water.  It  can  be  arranged  that  groups  of  children 
go  to  the  baths  at  such  times  when  a  part  of  the  class 
can  be  absent,   for  instance,   during  a   penmanship 


64  SCHOOL  HYGIENE 

period.  The  baths  may  be  placed  in  a  well- lighted 
basement  and  should  have  a  dressing-room  large 
enough  to  accommodate  a  number  of  pupils,  who  can 
untlress  while  others  are  bathing.  For  the  actual  bath 
the  water  is  first  run  warm  (35  degrees  centigrade), 
soft  liquid  soap  is  applied  and  the  body  is  washed  and 
rinsed  in  a  temperature  which  gradually  decreases 
toward  20  degrees.  A  bath  of  this  kind  requires  five 
minutes  of  time,  about  20  liters  of  water  for  each 
pupil  and  costs  perhaps  half  a  cent  per  person.  The 
process  is  a  rapid  one — a  new  troup  of  children  goes  in 
as  soon  as  the  other  comes  out  of  the  room,  and  un- 
dressing, bathing  and  dressing  follow  in  quick  suc- 
cession. Thus  a  maximum  amount  of  l^enefit  is 
obtained  at  a  nominal  cost.  The  bathing  should  be 
done  under  the  supervision  of  a  teacher,  and  if  nec- 
essary, an  assistant  might  help  the  small  children  with 
their  clothes. 

The  general  practice  with  regard  to  these  baths  has 
been  to  leave  it  optional  to  a  pupil  whether  or  not  he 
will  avail  himself  of  the  privilege.  The  results  have 
shown  that  while  at  first  only  a  part  of  the  children 
participate,  in  the  end  almost  every  one  takes  part. 
The  school  bath  wins  favor  quicker  when  the  children 
are  encouraged,  treated  with  consideration,  and  the 
rooms  are  comfortable.  The  practice  of  furnishing 
school  children  with  free  tickets  for  public  baths  falls 
far  short  of  having  the  baths  in  the  school.  On  the 
other  hand,  it  is  entirely  feasible  to  permit  the  general 
public  also  to  use  the  school  baths.  A  separate  en- 
trance may  be  provided  for  this  j)urpose,  as  has  been 
done  in  some  places.     Such  an  arrangement  might  be 


THE  SCHOOLIIOUSK  65 

particularly  helpful  iu  rural  coiuinunitics,  where 
children  who  have  enjoyinl  the  school  bath  could  thus 
continue  its  use  after  f^raduation. 

Swimming  Pools. — Swimming  i)ools  and  instruction 
in  swininiinfi;  are  l)eginning  slowly  to  he  introduced 
into  the  pul)lic  schools.  Naturally  this  innovation 
depends  upon  the  opportunities  in  this  direction  which 
the  school  possesses.  It  is  encouraging  to  know,  for 
instance,  that  from  April  1,  1908  to  October  1,  1909, 
31,333  London  school  children  were  taught  to  swim  in 
60  of  the  public  baths  of  that  city. 

School  instruction  in  swimming  can  readily  l)e  im- 
parted to  large  numbers  of  children  by  means  of 
apparatus  and  exercises  before  the  pupils  enter  the 
water,  at  least  six  such  instruction  periods  being  re- 
quired. After  tiiese  exercises  the  fourteen  or  fifteen 
year  old  children  can  1)e  admitted  to  the  tank,  where 
they  are  held  by  ai)paratus,  a  whole  row  hanging  on 
a  cable  stretch(;d  across  the  basin.  Having  then 
acquired  skill  in  the  arm  and  leg  movements  in 
the  water  itself,  after  two  or  three  lessons  they  are 
permitted  to  swim  freely  with  belts  or  other  support- 
ers, and  under  the  supervision  of  a  teacher.  The  "  dry 
swimming"  is  practised  in  the  afternoon  gymnasium 
periods;  later  on  these  periods  are  used  for  swimming 
practice  in  the  water.  This  practice  has  been  in- 
troduced in  different  cities.  In  addition,  in  Germany, 
Austria  and  Switzerland  there  is  school  instruction  in 
swimming  under  various  other  procedures,  but  the 
above-mentioned  system  will  prove  most  valuable  in 
teaching  lai-ge  nund)ers  of  chiklren  to  swim.  The 
rapid  loss  of  body  iic'it    in  I  h(^  wat(jr,  t!io  increased 


66  SCHOOL  HYGIENE 

respiration  necessary  for  swimming  in  consequence  of 
the  pressure  of  water,  and  the  possibilities  of  ear  diffi- 
culties, make  a  medical  examination  of  the  pupil  a 
necessity. 

Rooms  for  Domestic  Science.^Other  marks  of 
modern  development  in  the  school  are  classes  in  do- 
mestic science  and  provisions  for  school  feeding.  In- 
struction in  cooking,  especially  for  older  girls  in  the 
higher  classes,  occupies  a  prominent  place  in  Scandi- 
navian schools.  The  practice  is  also  spreading  in 
Germany,  where  it  is  being  promulgated  by  the  efforts 
of  Auguste  Forster,  Kalle,  Kamp  and  others.  In 
England  such  instruction  in  the  public  schools  is  pre- 
scribed by  law  and  the  state  contributes  to  the  cost  at 
the  rate  of  four  shillings  per  scholar.  In  London  the 
dishes  thus  prepared  are  sold  to  the  children,  thereby 
making  the  establishment  self-sustaining.  These 
cooking  classes  date  as  far  back  as  1878.  In  the  same 
city,  in  1890  the  first  "washing  centers"  were  estab- 
,  lished  for  school  instruction  in  laundry  work.  In  1903 
there  were  142  such  centers  in  operation.  At  the 
present  time,  the  cooking,  washing  and  other  house- 
hold activities  are  taught  in  small,  easily  accessible 
housecraft  schools.  Not  every  school  in  London  has 
its  own  establishment,  but  a  number  of  schools  have 
access  to  a  common  center,  convenient  to  all. 

School  Feeding. — School  feeding  may  be  instituted 
either  for  the  benefit  of  children  who  live  too  far  from 
the  school  to  go  home  for  the  noonday  meal,  or  it 
may  be  for  tha  purpose  of  giving  good  food  to  very 
poor  or  neglected  children.  The  arrangcsment  made 
in  the  public  schools  of  Paris  is  excellent.     There  the 


THE  sriTOOTJTOUSE  07 

cliildren  iiuiy  havo  tlieir  luncheon  (dejeuner)  in  the 
schoolhouso  by  presenting  tickets,  some  of  wliich  have 
been  paid  for  and  some  of  which  have  been  given  gra- 
tuitously, and  no  one  knows  which  child  has  paid  and 
which  has  received  charity.  In  some  German  cities  also, 
in  Munich  for  instance,  provision  is  made  quite  as  a 
matter  of  courses  for  feeding  the  poorer  children  of  the 
public  schools.  More  than  one-third  of  all  German 
cities  offer  food  in  some  wa}^  or  another.  The  expense 
in  such  cases  is  usually  defrayed  by  private  benefac- 
tions, though  there  is  a  more  or  less  definite  tendency, 
especially  in  Switzerland,  to  regard  it  as  an  obligation 
of  the  state  to  supply  sufficient  and  good  food  to  the 
child  who  is  badly  nourished  at  home.  The  aim  in 
many  cities  is  to  give  aid  where  needed,  and  to  ask 
for  payment  where  the  parents  are  able  to  afford 
it. 

Toilets. — Both  with  respect  to  location  and  usage, 
the  toilets  of  the  school  demand  special  hygienic 
consideration,  as  under  adverse  conditions  they  may 
easily  prove  a  menace  to  health.  Experience  in 
school  life,  as  well  as  a  mass  of  statistical  evidence, 
points  out  the  need  for  improvement  in  this  direction. 
In  the  first  place,  the  school  periods  must  be  so  ar- 
ranged as  to  give  the  children  recesses  during  which 
they  may  attend  to  their  necessities,  and  in  addition 
the  children,  should  be  permitted  to  leave  the  class- 
room when  necessary.  Retention  may  often  lead  to 
Jiarmful  results,  to  maiming  or  permanent  weakening 
of  the  bladder,  to  costiveness,  as  well  as  to  sexual 
irregularities.  In  ]nibescent  girls  th(^  increased  flow 
of  blootl  to  the  pelvic  organs  at  certain  times,  accel- 


C8 


SCHOOL  HYGIENE 


orated  by  long  sitting,  creates  a  neeossity  for    more 
frequent  urination. 

Unclean  toilets  may  be  a  menace  to  the  air  of  the 
schoolroom;  unclean  fluids  from  the  toilets  may  con- 
taminate the  walls  and  even  the  drinking  water.  On 
the  other  hand,  if  the  toilets  are  placed  at  some  dis- 
tance from  the  building,  the  children  are  in  danger  of 
taking  cold  when  going  to  them  in  \\dnter,  especially 


Fig.  33. — Location  of  toilets  with  entrances  from  the  corridors. 
B  =  Boys,  G  =  Girls. 

the  older  girls  at  certain  periods  and  delicate  younger 

children,    and   there   is   always   the   possibility   that 

children  will  not  take  the  trouble  to  go  to  such  toilets 

when  necessary. 

The  dangers  which  spring  from  toilet  gases  in  the 

rooms,  and  waste  fluids  penetrating  the  walls,  have 

led  to  the  demand  that  toilets  shall  be  located  outside 


TIIK  SCHOOLIIorSE 


69 


of  the  scliool  buihliiig,  wliich  vastly  siniplilic's  the 
schoolh(nis(^  phm,  tliouj^h  if  w(^  stop  to  rcfliict  we  must 
admit  that  no  architect  woukl  tliiiik  of  phicing  in  the 
yard  the  toilets  of  a  two  or  three-storied  dwelling 
house.  Wiiy  then,  should  this  location  be  absolutely 
necessary  for  the  school?  Th(>  fact  is,  that  with  the 
use  of  the  modern  improvements  it  is  not  necessary 
for  the  school,  as  has  been  shown  long  ago  in  Austria. 
There  can  be  no  objection  to  toilets  on  every  floor 
of  the  schoolhouse,  if  they 
are  located  in  an  annex. 
Fig.  33  shows  toilet  rooms 
divided  off  from  the  corridor, 
one  section  for  girls  (G)  and 
one  for  boys  (B)  with  en- 
trances from  separate  corri- 
dors. 

With  a  central  water 
supply  of  sufficient  pressure 
as  found  in  large  schools,  detached  siphon  closets 
(Fig.  34)  may  be  installed.  These  insure  absence  of 
odors,  because  not  only  is  the  waste  immediately 
removed,  })ut  the  standing  water  in  the  bowl  (W) 
prevents  the  rise  of  sewer  gases.  At  the  commence- 
ment of  the  long  vacation  it  is  well  to  pour  a  little 
oil  into  the  basin  to  prevent  evaporation  of  the 
water.  Where  tlu^re  are  no  sewers,  the  prevention  of 
odors  can  also  be  accomplished  by  scattering  saw  dust 
into  the  pit  after  each  use.  But  the  whole  mat- 
ter of  (hsposal  of  waste  is  so  bound  up  with  the 
conditions  of  the  public  removal  of  refuse  in  the  locality 
in  question  that  it  is  impossible  to  go  into  technical 


Fig.    34. — Siphon  closet. 


70 


SCHOOL  HYGIENE 


matters  here.  The  toilet  rooms  should  be  light,  the 
walls  of  aglossy  surface,  so  that  they  cannot  be  readily 
marked.  The  best  way  to  accomplish  this,  though 
expensive,  is  to  have  the  walls  covered  with  glazed 
white  tile,  which  is  durable  and  can  be  washed. 
Where  this  is  not.  possible,  the  walls  might  be  plastered, 
the  plaster  laid  in  vertical  grooves,  after  which  the 


o 


D 


Fig.  35. — A  closet  for  country  schools,  used  in  Maine. 

whole  surface  is  painted  in  a  light  color,  care  being 
taken  to  use  no  lead. 

Where  pits  are  the  only  receptacles  for  waste,  it 
is  necessary  to  have  these  quite  apart  from  the 
building  and  constructed  in  such  a  way  that  the 
leakage  of  the  waste  is  avoided.  For  building  the 
foundation,  hard  bricks  laid  in  cement  or  asphalt  are 
to  be  recommended,  and  the  waste  pipe  must  be 
constructed  absolutely  water-tight.  Above  all,  the 
use  of  cesspools,  which  lead  the  waste  fluid  away 
by  filtering  through  the  ground,  should  be  absolutely 


THE  SCHOOLHOUSE  71 

proliihitcHl.     Tli(\y  are  entirely  unhygienic,  for  they 
iire  likely  to  contaminate  the  water  supply. 

For  little  count r}^  places  the  practice  proposed  by 
the  board  of  health  in  (he  state  of  Maine  (United 
States)  is  to  be  recommended.  Under  the  seat  of  the 
closet  stands  a  water-tight  bucket  (Fig.  35),  or 
one  of  cast  iron,  and  in  a  box  witiiin  the  closet  is  a 
supi:)ly  of  earth,  sawdust  or  ashes,  of  which  the  children 
are  to  throw  a  shovelful  into  the  l)ucket  after  each  use. 
On(^  wagon  load  of  this  material  is  found  to  be  sufficient 
for  a  school  year.  Daily,  after  the  close  of  school, 
the  contents  of  the  bucket  are  removed  through  a  door 
in  the  rear  and  are  thrown  on  a  compost  heap  or  turned 
into  fertilizer  and  covered  with  earth.  When  one 
sees  the  manure  heaps  of  the  countryside  to  which  are 
added  the  waste  deposits  of  the  closets,  it  is  not  difficult 
to  imagine  that  infection  may  spread  by  means  of  the 
domestic  animals.  This  emphasizes  the  need  for  the 
school  to  exert  its  educating  influence  also  in  this 
direction  as  well  as  in  another  direction — that  of 
ventilation.  Many  persons  in  the  country  never 
open  their  windows,  with  the  result,  as  proved  by 
statistics,  that  in  rural  districts  preventable  diseases 
are  more  frequent,  comparatively  speaking,  than 
among  url^an  populations.  It  is,  of  course,  true  that 
country  children  are  more  hardened  than  city  children. 
Hence,  it  is  permissible  in  country  schools  to  have  the 
closets  out-of-doors,  though  it  is  desirable  to  construct 
a  covered  passageway  leading  out  to  the  facilities. 

Urinals. — It  is  not  possible,  with  such  simple 
arrangements,  to  keep  urinals  free  from  odors.  For 
this  reason,  it  is  desirable  not  to  install  them,  but  to 


72  SCHOOL  HYGIENE 

have  the  children  use  only  the  above-mentioned  closet. 
For  special  places  the  oil  urinal*  is  an  ideal  ar- 
rangement. The  walls  are  covered  with  a  prepara- 
tion to  which  urine  does  not  cling  and  the  oil  in  the 
siphon  which  collects  the  urine,  covers  it  and  renders 
it  practically  odorless.  These  oil  urinals,  which  are 
being  widely  used,  can  be  kept  odorless  with  very 
little  effort,  which  can  hardly  be  the  case  when  only 
water  is  used. 

Bodily  needs  should  be  attended  to  during  the  re- 
cess periods;  consequently  the  closets  should  be 
near  the  recreation  rooms  and  the  playground. 
Ordinarily  one  closet  is  planned  for  one  class,  but 
with  classes  of  fifty  or  more  additional  facilities  are 
needed.  When  the  toilets  are  under  supervision  or 
the  children  have  the  impression  that  it  is  so,  it  is  not 
necessary  to  limit  particular  ones  to  certain  classes. 
Above  all,  the  supervisors  must  see  to  it  that  the  closets 
are  not  made  untidy.  Cleanliness  can  be  best  en- 
sured if  the  children  themselves  are  urged  to  report 
immediatel}'  any  toilet  found  in  an  untidy  condition. 
It  is  very  convenient  to  have  the  lavatories  connected 
with  the  toilets,  but  with  regard  to  washing  accom- 
modation our  schools  leave  much  to  ])e  desired. 

School  and  Dwelling. — The  combined  school  and 
dwelUng  house  needs  brief  discussion.  It  is  a  plan 
not  to  be  rejected  because  it  is  often  the  only  feasible 
one.  In  large  cities,  the  ground  is  so  expensive  that  a 
separate  house  for  the  principal  and  teachers  is  pro- 
hibitive. And  again  a  school  of  this  kind  may  be 
used  for  such  a  variety  of  educational  purposes  as  to 

•Made  by  ^^■.  Bcetz  in  Vienna. 


THE  SCHOOLHOUSr:  73 

make  ilu>  ivsuUmu-o  of  the  dirt'ctor  within  the  l)uil(ling 
very  tlesii:il)le,  antl  the  work  of  cleaning  and  heating  is 
also  facilitated  if  the  janitor  is  lodged  in  the  house. 
In  country  schools  where  the  children  come  from  a 
great  distance,  it  is  of  advantage  to  them  to  be  able 
to  get  a  warm  meal  cooked  by  some  one  connected  with 
the  school,  who  may  also  in  other  ways  show  her 
motherliness.  Of  course,  care  should  })c  taken  that 
such  accommodation  of  the  teacher  and  his  family  in 
the  schoolhouse  shall  not  prove  a  drawback  to  the 
school,  which  might  be  the  case  if  patients  with  con- 
tagious diseases  are  kept  within  the  schoolhouse,  and 
odors  from  the  kitchen  or  from  impure  water  in  the  laun- 
dry, etc.  are  allowed  to  penetrate  to  the  classrooms.  In 
the  interests  of  the  director,  his  rooms  should  include  at 
least  one  that  is  sunny  and  away  from  the  noise  of 
the  children.  The  director  is  entitled  to  accommoda- 
tions which  will  afford  him  and  his  family  a  com- 
modious home;  hence  none  of  the  rooms  should  be 
located  in  the  basement  nor  should  there  be  less  than 
three  living  rooms. 

The  use  of  the  schoolrooms  for  other  than  school 
purposes  may  prove  hygienically  undesirable;  social 
gatherings  may  litter  up  th(>  floor,  and  contagion 
from  sickness  may  enter.  It  should  be  the  duty  of 
the  city  or  town  authorities  to  see  that  the  health  of 
the  childr(ni  is  not  endangered. 

Cleaning. — The  cleaning  of  the  schoolhouse  has 
alrc^ady  l)een  mentioned  and  it  must  be  admitted  that 
in  this  direction  much  progress  needs  to  be  made. 
In  this  respect,  as  with  regard  to  lighting,  ventilation, 
seating,  toilets,  etc.,  the  school  differs  by  virtue  of  its 


74  SCHOOL  HYC;iKNE 

intensified  use  from  other  dwellings  and  demands 
special  means  to  keep  it  sanitary.  Improvement  will 
come  when  the  general  public  has  been  hygienically 
educated  to  realize  special  menaces  to  health,  as  well  as 
conditions  necessary  to  safety  and  comfort.  Cleaning 
operations  which  will  stir  up  dust  should  never  fall 
upon  the  pupils.  In  this  matter  of  cleaning,  Denmark 
has  made  a  distinct  advance  by  introducing  into  the 
law  of  1905  for  the  fight  against  tuberculosis  a  clause 
covering  this  point.  Another  exemplary  provision  is 
contained  in  an  edict  issued  by  the  city  of  Copen- 
hagen in  1908.  It  is  practicable  in  large  schools  to 
contract  for  the  cleaning  and  heating,  as  is  done  in 
some  cities  of  Germany.  Where  possible,  a  vacuum 
cleaner  should  l)e  installed. 

Fire  Regulations. — Large  school  fires  and  terrible 
panics  among  the  children  have  taught  the  stern 
lesson  that  the  construction  of  the  school  building 
and  the  order  maintained  during  an  emergency  must 
be  such  as  to  avert  like  occurrences  in  the  future. 
For  this  reason  the  fire  drill  at  least  ojice  a  month 
should  be  a  matter  of  school  routine.  All  large  schools 
should  be  equipped  with  fire  escapes,  as  is  the  case  in 
American  cities. 


II 

THE  HYGIENE  OF  INSTRUCTION 
1.    General  Consideration 

Fatigue. — Prolongetl  labor  of  any  kind  leads  to 
fatigue.  Fatigue  is  regarded  as  due  to  the  accumula- 
lation  in  an  organism  of  certain  products  of  met- 
abolism, the  presence  of  which  tends  to  diminish  energy. 
It  must  not  be  supposed,  however,  that  the  sul)jective 
expression  of  fatigue,  i.e.,  the  feeling  of  being  tired, 
is  an  exact  measure  of  the  degree  of  fatigue,  though 
it  is  usually  an  important  indication.  Following 
fatigue,  rest,  nourishment,  and  fresh  air  bring  recovery 
from  the  tired  state.  But  to  aid  the  healthy  develop- 
ment of  the  child  more  is  needed  than  mere  alternation 
of  brain  work  and  mental  rest.  The  muscles  of  the 
child  also  require  exercise  for  their  growth;  this  ex- 
ercise likewise  produces  fatigue  and  in  its  turn  demands 
periods  of  rest.  Fatigue  is  essentially  a  general  con- 
dition; the  products  of  dissolution  which  accumulate 
through  brain  work  produce  a  diminished  capacity 
of  the  muscles  as  well  as  the  nerve  cells,  and  vice  versa. 
Weichardt  in  Erlangen  (Germany)  who  has  succeeded 
in  injecting  into  an  unwearied  animal  a  substance 
called  kenotoxin  extracted  by  him  from  the  muscles 
of  a  tired  animal,  has  observed  in  the  former  all  the 
characteristic    signs   of   fatigue.     To    overcome   this 

75 


76  SCHOOL  HYGIENE 

experimentally  produced  fatigue,  he  then  used  an 
antibody,  or  reactive  agent,  which  he  injected  into  the 
animal.  These  facts  are  not  cited  as  urging  that  a  like 
procedure  bo  undertaken  with  school  children,  though 
Lorenz  in  Berlin  has  proved  that  the  spraying  of  an 
anti-kenotoxin  in  the  air  of  the  schoolroom  diminished 
fatigue  in  the  pupils.  But  such  means  of  recuperation 
are  not  to  be  advocated,  for  fatigue  signifies  need  of 
rest  and  if  fatigue  were  artifically  prevented  new  work 
would  commence  at  the  undue  expense  of  the  reserve 
power  of  the  child.  This  is  especially  dangerous  for 
children  because  they  not  only  need  to  restore  used 
material  but  to  accumulate  new  material  for  growth. 

These  are  problems  which  still  await  definite  solu- 
tion, though  this  much  is  certain — fatigue  should 
never  be  permitted  to  reach  the  stage  of  exhaustion, 
that  is,  it  should  not  be  carried  so  far  that  the  devel- 
opment of  the  child  is  hampered.  The  rule  should 
be  that  complete  recovery  must  follow  a  day's  work 
before  the  next  day's  tasks  are  begun. 

Increases  in  height  and  weight  are  good  indications  of 
proper  development.  If  a  child  who  has  healthy 
parents  and  to  all  appearances  a  hygienic  environ- 
ment, still  shows  signs  of  physical  backwardness,  this 
lack  of  development  must  be  regarded  as  an  un- 
favorable sign.  Constant  watchfulness  of  the  de- 
velopment and  the  hygienic  conditions  of  school 
children  is  a  matter  of  public  interest.  In  this  con- 
nection it  might  be  particularly'  valuable  if  we  could 
know  how  near  at  any  given  moment  the  state  of 
fatigue  is  to  its  physiological  limit,  or  whether  it  has 
already    reached    the    pathological    condition.     Our 


THE  HYc;ir:NE  of  instruction      77 

knowlodfrc  on  this  point  is  nieaK<'r,  wliicli  is  not  to  he 
wondered  at  when  wc  consider  that  research  in  this 
field  lias  been  undertaken  only  during  the  past  few 
years. 

A  full  disoiission  of  the  subject  of  fatigue  would  far 
exceed  the  Hinits  of  this  book,  but  in  order  to  give  the 
reader  an  idea  of  tiie  means  taken  to  determine  the 
presence  of  fatigue,  a  few  methods  will  l)e  presented. 
The  psychological  methwls  require  the  child  to  com- 
pute figures,  to  keej)  numl)ers  or  words  in  his  memory, 
to  recall  previous  happenings  and  to  complete  the  sense 
of  broken  passages. 

Another  way  is  to  estimate  the*  fatigue  elements 
resulting  from  either  mental  or  physical  labor  by 
testing  muscle  capacitj''  with  the  ergograph,  an  instru- 
ment designed  by  Mosso  of  Turin.  The  test  made  is 
of  the  amount  of  muscular  work  which  can  be  per- 
formed by  the  middle  finger,  the  subject  lifting  a 
weight  rhythmically  as  many  times  as  he  is  able.  The 
weight  hangs  on  a  string  which  runs  over  a  roller. 
The  heights  to  which  the  weight  is  raised  and  the 
rapidity  with  which  one  stroke  follows  another  are 
indicated  by  the  instrument,  and  the  sum  of  the  results 
in  the  given  time,  with  a  given  weight,  constitutes 
the  work,  which  is  recorded  in  meter-kilograms.  No 
matter  what  the  cause  of  fatigue,  the  tired  individual 
is  able  to  perform  only  a  fraction  of  the  work  that  he 
is  able  to  do  in  a  rested  condition. 

Another  plan,  that  of  Weichardt,  is  to  estimate  the 
degree  of  fatigue  by  dumbbell  work  and  foot  move- 
ments; or,  according  to  Schuyten  of  Antwerp,  by  a 
dynamometer  which  registers  the  pressure  power  of 


78  SCHOOL  HYGIENE 

the  hands.  The  aim  of  the  phj-siological  methods 
is  to  show  the  decreased  power  of  the  sense  organs 
under  fatigue.  If  the  finger  tip  of  a  normal  individual 
is  touched  with  the  two  points  of  a  compass,  he  will 
be  conscious  of  two  sejiarate  sensations,  even  when 
the  points  are  very  close  together;  ])ut  in  order  to  get 
two  separate  impressions  when  the  compass  is  placed 
on  the  upper  arm,  the  two  points  must  be  placed 
relatively  far  apart.  It  has  been  found  by  Griesbach 
of  Miilhausen  (Germany)  that  under  fatigue  the  points 
of  the  compass  on  the  finger  tip  must  be  widened  to 
produce  two  sensations,  and  the  degree  of  fatigue  is 
indicated  by  the  'distance  between  the  points.  This 
is  the  aesthesiometric  method. 

While  the  results  achieved  by  these  methods  indi- 
cate the  general  usefulness  of  such  procedures,  some 
very  decided  objections  can  be  raised  and  the  results 
of  one  method  do  not  always  corroborate  those  of 
another.  But  nevertheless  we  must  not  abandon 
the  hope  of  arriving  at  a  method  which  shall  be 
free  from  objections.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  re- 
searches made  in  different  laboratories  with  different 
methods  have  already  shown  a  general  tendency  in 
one  direction. 

Constitution. — That  individuals  differ  in  natural 
aptitude  or  constitutional  tendencies  as  well  as  in  de- 
velopment is  a  universal  truth.  The  further  fact, 
however,  is  not  so  well  known  that,  as  a  rule,  the 
children  better  equipped  physically,  that  is  the  heavier 
and  larger  children,  make  better  school  progress  on 
the  average  than  the  weaker  ones,  a  finding  which 
gives  added  meaning  to  the  phrase,  "a  sound  mind 


THE  11Y(;1J':NE  of  instruction        79 

in  a  sound  body."  This  truth  was  wholly  disregarded 
until  Russian  investigators  emphasized  its  importance, 
and  the  extensive  investigations  of  Porter  in  Boston, 
F.  A.  Schmidt  and  Lessenich  of  Bonn  (Germany) 
corroborated  the  statement,  which  was  further  proved 
by  the  work  of  many  other  investigators,  among 
them  Graupner  of  Dresden,  Quirsfeld  of  Prague,  Rietz 
of  Berlin  and  S.  Rosenfeld  of  Vienna. 

Defective  Children. — The  very  great  differences 
existing  in  mental  capacity  are  better  detected  in  the 
elementary,  than  in  the  high  s(;hool,  where  a 
more  or  less  selective  process  has  operated.  Because 
of  a  realization  of  this  wide  difference  of  aptitude 
among  children  much  is  heard  about  subnormal  and 
backward  children.  From  the  standpoint  of  school 
hygiene  such  discussions  are  to  be  warmly  welcomed. 
Among  the  subnormal  the  first  to  receive  consideration 
in  the  school  are  the  mentally  defective,  then  cripples 
and  epileptics,  and  moral  defectives.  The  blind  and 
the  deaf  have  always  received  special  care  and  need 
hardly  be  considered  in  connection  with  the  public 
school.  Finally  we  have  children  who  are  retarded 
because  of  chronic  diseases  such  as  tuberculosis  and 
trachoma,  as  well  as  constitutionally  weak  children 
and  those  who  are  nearsighted  in  a  high  degree. 
Public  interest  is  aiming  to  provide  for  all  these  the 
advantages  of  education,  of  which  they  would  other- 
wise be  deprived  to  a  greater  or  less  extent. 

As  a  rule,  mentally  retarded  children  fall  behind  the 
normal  in  weight,  as  Schmid-Monnard  in  Halle 
(Germany)  has  shown.  IMalnutrition  and  sickness 
likewise  play  a  large  role  among  the  l^ackward.     More- 


80  SCHOOL  HYGIENE 

over,  because  of  their  inability  to  keep  pace  with 
other,  normal  children,  such  pupils  are  at  a  disad- 
vantage psychically.  It  frequentl}^  happens  that  the 
teacher  for  a  time  misjudges  such  children,  regarding 
them  as  lacking  in  ambition.  That  there  are  intelli- 
gent children  among  the  defectives  who  are  unfit  for 
the  public  schools  is  instanced  by  the  word-blind. 

Special  Classes. — The  normal,  subnormal  and  ab- 
normal are  not  separated  by  wide  gulfs;  there  are 
gradual  stages  of  transition  from  one  to  the  .other 
groups.  The  diagnosis  of  defectiveness  is  not  always 
easy  to  make  and  hence  special  methods  for  testing 
intelligence  have  been  designed.  By  placing  the 
backward  pupils  in  a  special  class  final  decision 
can  be  deferred  for  some  time,  though,  unfortunately, 
parents  frequently  object  to  this  procedure,  notwith- 
standing that  it  is  the  wisest  course  for  the  child,  who 
is  thus  taught  by  a  specially  trained  teacher,  in 
company  with  only  a  small  number  of  companions, 
perhaps  not  more  than  twelve.  In  the  special  classes, 
the  pupils  can  have  a  maximum  amount  of  recreation, 
medical  attention,  etc.,  that  is,  they  are  especially 
cared  for  also  from  the  standpoint  of  their  physical 
health.  The  carefully  kept  records  of  these  classes  are 
frequentl}^  of  value,  as  in  examination  for  military 
service,  or  in  questions  of  liability  in  a  court  of  justice. 
Moreover,  the  practical  training  received  in  these 
special  classes  is  of  great  advantage  to  those  who  at  the 
end  of  school  must  earn  their  living.  It  has  been 
computed  that  from  1  to  2  percent  of  the  school 
children  in  different  countries  are  defective — a  number 
sufficiently  large  to  demand  special  study  and  atten- 


THE  1IYC;IENE  OF  INSTHrC^TION        81 

tion.  In  the  city  of  Mcannheim  (Germany),  Sickinger 
has  made  an  attempt  to  systematize  the  care  of  the 
various  types  of  subnormal  children. 

School  Age. — Most  children  are  ready  for  school 
wluMi  they  have  passed  their  sixth  birthday,  that  is, 
they  are  then  sufficiently  developed  to  undertake  school 
work.  This  age  has  been  generally  chosen  because 
while  up  to  the  seventh  year  of  life  the  brain  grows 
rapidly,  after  this  period,  growtli  is  at  a  much  less 
rapid  rate.  That  organ  is  therefore  quite  well 
developed  when  the  child  enters  school,  although  not 
yet  adapted  for  abstract  thinking.  The  worst  feature 
at  the  l)eginning  of  school  life  is  this,  that  the  transition 
from  a  state  of  freetlom  to  confinement  is  too  pro- 
nounced; the  hours  of  instruction  are  too  long 
and  the  recesses  too  short.  It  is  demanded  of  the 
child  whose  interest  is  naturally  fickle  at  this  age,  that 
he  shall  seriously  concern  himself  with  certain  things, 
and  he  must,  in  addition,  sit  absolutely  still.  The 
fact  that  we  are  here  concerned  with  a  real  prol>lem  is 
demonstrated  by  the  investigations  of  Schmid- 
Monnard  in  Halle  (Germany)  who  found  that  among 
chiklren  of  all  ages,  from  birth  to  the  fourteenth  year, 
those  showing  the  least  increase  in  body  weight  be- 
longed to  the  seven-year  group,  i.e.,  those  in  the  first 
year  of  school  life,  while  those  children  who  for  some 
reason  spent  this  year  out  of  school  showed  a  decidedly 
greater  increase  in  height,  as  well  as  weight.  In  the 
case  of  weak  children,  the  effect  was  evident  even 
in  the  second  school  year.  Hertel  of  Copenhagen, 
basing    his    conclusions    on    o])servation    made    upon 


82  SCHOOL  HYGIENE 

thousands  of  children,  found  tliat  there  is  an  increase 
of  iUnoss  at  school  entrance. 

Co-education. — One  of  the  most  important  edu- 
cational problems  of  the  present  day  is  the  ctv-educa- 
tion  of  boys  and  girls.  The  subject  can  ])e  considered 
here  only  from  the  point  of  view  of  school  hygiene. 
The  question  reaches  its  most  critical  stage  with 
regard  to  the  secondarj^  school,  for  in  the  elementary 
school  the  requirements  are  less  severe  and  moreover 
there  is  separation  of  the  sexes  so  far  as  gymnasium 
work  is  concerned,  because  of  the  weaker  frame  and 
musculature  of  girls.  But,  as  we  shall  see  later,  even 
in  the  elementary  school  the  subject  of  boys  and 
girls  in  one  and  the  same  school  deserves  further 
consideration. 

The  origin  of  co-education  in  Europe  lies  in  the 
tendency  to  increase  the  earning  capacity  of  woman. 
Co-education  is  the  consequence  of  the  attempt  to 
equalize  the  position  of  the  sexes.  In  addition,  certain 
practical  questions  are  often  involved,  for  instance,  a 
community  may  not  be  able  to  afford  a  separate  high 
school  or  college  for  girls,  and  again  the  number  of 
girls  desiring  this  education  may  be  so  very  small  that 
accommodation  might  easily  be  arranged  at  a  boys' 
school.  In  view  of  the  more  taxing  curriculum 
demanded  in  the  secondary  as  compared  with  the 
elementary  school,  the  highly  diverse  physiological 
differences  of  the  sexes  demand  paramount  con- 
sideration. As  the  subject  is  large,  only  a  few 
facts  of  experience  and  those  gathered  from  sta- 
tistics will  ])e  given.  Of  the  greatest  imj^ortance 
is  the   difference   of  development   at   pul^orty.     The 


THE  HYGIENE  OF  INSTRUCTION 


83 


period  of  pubescence  in  boys  is  longer  than  in 
girls;  but  it  more  deeply  affects  tlie  girl,  as  it 
is  connected  with  greater  changes  in  the  body, 
and  a  successful  transition  is  of  the  greatest 
significance  to  the  woman  of  the  future.  The  first 
appearance  of  menstruation,  in  the  temperate  zones 
between  the  ages  of  fourteen  and  sixteen  years,  is 
only  the  final  manifestation  of  a  whole  chain  of 
developmental  processes.  The  determining  factor  in 
this  consideration  must  be  the  comparative  vitality 
of  the  two  sexes,  as  it  can  be  learned  from  the  study  of 
a  rich  array  of  statistical  evidence  concerning  sickness 
ond  mortality.     A  few  such  facts  are  shown  below. 

Table  I.     A  Comparison-  of  Boys  anu  Girls  in  Secondary 
Schools  with  Respect  to  Illness* 


Name  of 
investigator 

Country 
(or  city) 

Boys 

Girls 

Number 
examined 

Percent 
sick 

Number 
examined 

Percent 
sick 

Hertel 

Danish 
Commission 

Key 

Norwegian 
Commission 

Copenhagen 

Denmark 
Sweden 

Norway 

1,900 

16,789 
11,210 

830 

31.1 

29.0 
34.4 

21.9 

664 

11,330 
3,072 

500 

39.4 

41.0 
61.7 

36.7 

*  The  boj'S  in  these  cases  are  from  public  Latin  and  modern 
schools,  the  girls  from  similar  private  schools,  with  the  exception 
of  thos(!  cxainincd  by  the  Danish  f  Jommission,  where  both  boys 
and  girls  were  students  of  the  public  schools.  The  Latin  and 
modern  schools  are  mostly  day  schools  supported  by  the  state,  the 
parents  paying  a  moderate  tax,  or  in  case  of  poverty,  nothing. 
(In  reading  the  book  it  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  educa- 
tional systems  of  Germany  and  Scandinavia  differ  from  the 
American.  The  "higher  schools"  of  Europe  do  not  correspond  to 
our  high  schools:  they  do  not  follow  the  elementary  schools,  but 
rather  overlap  some  of  the  work  of  the  lower  schools.     Translators.) 


84 


SCHOOL  IIYOIENE 


The  above  statistics  have  been  selected  because  they 
inckide  large  numbers  and  the  pupils  are  distributed 
over  a  wide  geographical  field. 

Certain  pathological  manifestations,  as  ansGmia, 
chlorosis,  and  recurring  headaches,  are  particularly 
frequent  among  girls,  who  also  are  more  prone  to 
develop  irregularities  of  the  spine,  all  of  whicii  would 
seem  to  point  to  a  lower  capacity  for  resistan(!e.  These 
statements  are  substantiated  by  the  findings  of  the 
pathological  anatomist  Ke}^  of  Stockholm,  whose 
investigation  has  already  been  mentioned  in  the 
preceding  table. 


T.\BLE     II. 

Key's   Findings  of   Chlorosis   and   Headache 

No.  examined             Chlorosis 

Habitual  headache 

Boys 

Girls 

11,210 
3,219 

12.7% 
35.5% 

13.5% 
36.1% 

With    reference    to    anemia    in    girls,    Tjaden    in 
Giessen  found  the  following: 


Table   III.     Tjaden's   Findings   of   Anemia 

Autumn  examination  Spring  examination 

Boys  5=   0.7%  18=  2.1% 

Girls  121=13.6%  157  =  16.0% 

Eulenberg  in  Berlin  found  among  300  children 
afflicted  with  spinal  curvature  that  13  percent  were 
boys  and  87  percent  girls. 

The  findings  of  Lindholm  in  Helsingfors  (Finland) 
the  school  physician  of  a  higher  co-educational 
school,  are: 


THK   IIVCIENK  OF  INSTRUfTION         85 


TvitLK  IV.  Lindho^m's  Findings  of  Anemia  and  Headache 


Anoniiii  and   general 
weakness 


Hoys. 
Girls 


Habitual  headache 


A  number  of  observers  point  to  the  thirteenth  j^car 
as  the  most  critical  for  girls,  that  is,  during  this  year 
there  is  more  illness  than  in  others.  If  we  consider  the 
usually  accepted  standard  of  education,  that  for  the 
boy,  this  year  as  a  rule  comes  when  the  girl  is  already 
in  the  high(>r  school.  In  Helsingfors  where  physical 
training  is  compulsory  and  excuses  are  granted  only 
on  the  statement  of  a  physician,  Palml)erg  has  found 
that  in  the  elementary  schools  among  1,684  boys  and 
girls  none  were  excused,  while  in  the  higher  schools  he 
found  the  following: 

Table  V.     Excuse.s  from  Physical  Tr.uning  Granted  to 
Pupils    of    Higher    Schools    in    Helsingfors 


Higher  public  schools 

Higher  private  schools 

Total 

Percent 
excused 

Total 

Percent 
excused 

Boj's 

Girls  . .            

1,152 
1,306 

1.30 
3.70 

1,275 
973 

3.06 
11.63 

The  reason  for  excuse  of  51  percent  of  the  boys  and 
35  percent  of  the  girls  was  functional  disturbance  of 
various  kinds,  while  49  percent  of  the  l)oys  and  65 
percent  of  the  girls  were  excused  because  of  general 
debility.  Lindholm's  results  in  eight  small  towns  in 
Finland  show  similar  ratios. 

This  array  of  statistical  data  would  seem  to  show 
that  from  the  viewpoint  of  hygiene  the  co-educative 


86  SCHOOL  HYGIENE 

system  in  high  schools  is  detrimental  to  the  health  of 
girls.  The  argument  of  lesser  mental  ability  in  the 
case  of  girls  has  been  proved  wiioUy  futile:  indeed, 
the  results  show  that  girls  succeed  rather  better  in  their 
studies  than  boys.  Hygienically  important  is  the  fact 
of  the  greater  suggestibility  in  the  case  of  the  girl,  as  is 
proved  by  the  spread  of  psychic  epidemics,  for  instance, 
muscular  twitching  in  girls'  schools  rather  than  in 
boys'.  For  this  reason  also,  one  might  almost  saj' 
unfortunately,  girls  are  more  readily  stimulated  to 
increased  endeavor,  which  in  view  of  the  great  de- 
mands made  in  the  high  school  and  the  unquestionably 
smaller  resistance  force  of  the  girl,  can  not  be  con- 
sidered as  advantageous  to  health. 

It  is  difficult,  in  view  of  the  above  mentioned  and 
absolutely  unbiased  facts,  to  meet  the  demand  of  the 
present  time  for  the  higher  education  of  girls,  a  demand 
which  is  based  not  alone  upon  ideal  considerations, 
but  also  upon  necessity.  There  are  other  grounds 
as  well  on  which  co-education  has  been  condemned, 
one  being  the  moral  question,  though  Ave  do  not  consider 
these  arguments  conclusive.  If  there  are  separate 
Avardrobes  and  toilets,  and  if  the  gymnastic  exercises  are 
not  given  in  common,  there  is  little  to  be  feared  from 
comj^etition  in  the  schoolroom  and  the  meeting  of 
boys  and  girls  in  supervised  playgrounds,  even  though 
occasional  irregularities,  often  springing  from  natural 
impulses,  have  been  reported.  When  it  comes  to 
that,  objectionable  practices  are  also  found  in  separate 
schools  and  it  is  doubtful  whether  co-education  in- 
creases them.  Especially  in  small  towns  where  the 
young  people  meet  outside  of  school  it  is  true  that 


Till'.   IIV(JIENE  OF  INHTllUCrnON        87 

pul)li(i  opinion  acts  as  a  control;  tliis,   of  course,  is 
absent  in  large  cities. 

The    real    hygienic    (lifficulty    of    co-education    is 
presented  ])y  the  curriculum.     In  accordaut-e  with  the 
incidence  of  sickness  found  among  girls,  the  curricu- 
lum bc^ginning  with  the  tenth  year  of  life  should  be 
better  arranged  to  meet  the  requirements  of  health. 
Guided  by  the  investigations  of  Key,  we  must  consider 
the  ]:)eriod  of  pubescence  as  one  of  lessened  resistance, 
and   the  years  of  development  into  womanhood  as 
requiring  the  greatest  care,  for  it  may  otherwise  happen 
that    during    this    critical    period    pathological    con- 
ditions will  develop  which  are  carried  throughout  life, 
For  this  reason,  the  curriculum  of  the  higher  school 
must  be  differently  planned,  there  must  be  less  sitting 
still  and  more  exercises  in  the  open  air.     One  solution 
would  be  to  have  a  lower  standard  of  work  for  girls  at 
a  certain  age  in  those  studies  which  are  most  taxing, 
and  to  plan  the  curriculum  with  special  reference  to 
the  endurance  of  each  year.     The  free  hours  should  be 
used  for  bodily  exercise.     This  means,  of  course,  that 
in  a  co-educative  system  the  girls  can  not  compete 
in  the  same  examinations  with  the  boys.     That,  how- 
ever,  should  not  prove  an  insurmountable  difficulty, 
for  those  girls  who  are  not  seeking  the  education  as  a  step 
to  self-support  would  no  doubt  be  satisfied  with  a  re- 
stricted curricuhun,  while  to  the  remainder,  opportu- 
nity might  later  be  aft"orded,  when  they  have  attained 
maturity,  to  complete  their  studies,  so  as  to  enal)le 
them  to  take  the  full  examinations.     If  girls  would  be 
content  to  add  an  additional  year  or  a  year  and  a  half 
to  their  school  course,  there  would  be  no  disproportion 


88  SCHOOL  HYGIENE 

ill  the  end  in  countries  where  young  men  are  obliged 
to  spend  some  years  in  military  service. 

In  Europe  co-education  in  the  high  school  has  been 
developed  to  its  fullest  extent  only  in  Scandinavia  and 
Finland,  where  it  is  being  attacked  by  present-day 
hygienists.  It  is  spreading  in  Switz(>rland  and  in 
the  German  Empire  (Baden,  Wurttemb(u*g,  SaxonjO 
and  is  beginning  also  in  Austria.  Conditions  in  the 
United  States  can  not  be  compared  as  a  whole  with 
those  of  continental  Europe  because  such  varied 
pp,ctices  exist  in  different  states.  Co-educational 
colleges  have  been  established,  especially  in  the  west 
and  south  of  the  United  States.  They  differ  from  the 
European  plan  in  that  students  may  choose  their 
subjects  in  part,  and  the  healthful  recreation  afforded 
by  the  school  is  open  to  both  sexes.  It  is  a  noteworthy 
fact  that  at  the  passage  of  the  new  rules  for  girls' 
high  schools  the  school  board  of  Prussia  has  taken 
account  of  the  lessened  resistance  of  girls  and  has 
taken  action  accordingly.  In  view  of  the  profound 
significance  that  the  higher  education  of  girls  has  for 
the  individual,  the  family,  and  tJie  state,  a  definite 
regulation  ])y  a  provision  such  as  the  Saxoii}^  law  of 
1910  is  heartily  to  be  recommended.  At  all  events, 
care  should  be  taken  in  every  co-educative  high 
school  to  prepare  a  different  curriculum  for  girls  than 
for  boys.  This  conclusion  seems  unavoidable  in  tli(! 
light  of  the  facts  that  have  been  presented. 

2.  Number  of  Pupils  and  Curriculum 

Number  of  Pupils. — ^The  meeting  together  of  many 
individuals  in  one  room  for  instruction   is  the  most 


THE  HYCJIKNE  OF  INSTRUCTION        8!) 

characteristic  feature  of  the  school.  We  have 
ah-eady  discussed  how  the  usefulness  of  this  room  is 
affected  by  the  fact  that  tiie  daylight  dimiuisluvs  in 
proportion  to  the  width  of  the  room,  and  how  the 
size  of  the  classroom  is  controlled  by  the  limits  of 
hearing  and  seeing,  "i'liese  limitations  affect  also 
the  mnnher  of  children  who  can  constitute  a  class. 
It  has  also  been  mentioned  that  the  air  of  a  classroom 
l)ecomes  rapidly  unhygienic,  even  when  4  cubic  meters 
of  air  are  allowed  for  each  pupil.  At  this  rate,  a  room 
measuring  9  by  G  by  4  meters  can  accommodate  about 
fifty  i)upils,  though  the  total  number  of  cubic  ffl^t 
(216)  can  not  be  considered  as  being  wholly  air  space, 
for  the  furniture  and  the  children  themselves  take 
up  room.  The  number  fifty  has  been  determined 
on  the  grounds  of  light,  air,  etc.  But  experience 
teaches  furthermore  that  contagious  diseases  and  moral 
delincjucuicies  make  headway  easier  in  large  classes 
than  in  small;  and  the  teacher  of  a  large  class  finds  it 
difficult  to  accustom  many  of  the  children  to  correct 
posture.  That  the  instruction  itself  must  suffer  is  ab- 
solutely clear.  This  fact  is  of  hygienic  importance  in 
so  far  as  it  concerns  certain  unfavorable  psychic 
effects  upon  some  children,  who  need  individual 
attention  which  they  cannot  receive  in  an  overcrowded 
class.  Lastly,  an  overcrowded  class  does  not  afford 
healthful  work  for  the  instru(;tor. 

The  problem  of  the  number  of  ])upils  to  a  class  is  not 
to  be  solved  purely  from  a  hygienic  standpoint;  often 
it  must  be  a  question  of  finances.  That  it  can  be 
successfully  solved,  however,  is  proved  by  a  number  of 
instances.     According  to  the  law  of  Norway  passed  in 


90  SCHOOL  HYGIENE 

1889,  the  maximum  number  of  children  in  country 
classes  is  35;  under  pressing  economic  conditions  it 
may  be  45;  in  cities  the  numbers  are  45  and  50  re- 
spectively. According  to  the  pu])lished  reports  of 
average  classroom  attendance,  we  find  that  for  in- 
stance during  April  1900,  the  average  number  of  school 
children  per  class  in  Christiania  was  33.1;  in  Dron- 
theim  at  the  end  of  September,  1901,  31;  in  Bergen, 
33.9;  in  Stockholm,  in  1893,  36— all  well  within  the 
lawful  maximum.  In  Denmark,  the  law  of  1899 
limits  cities  to  classes  numbering  35  and  country 
schools  to  37,  and  it  must  be  mentioned  that  addi- 
tional funds  were  also  appropriated  to  meet  the  need 
created  by  this  law.  In  London  the  number  of 
children  under  one  instructor  decreased  during  the 
period  from  1873  to  1903  from  80.5  to  41.9  pupils. 
All  the  above-stated  numbers  apply  to  public  schools. 
In  Alsace-Lorraine  the  law  of  1883  stipulates  that  for 
the  three  lowest  grades  of  the  higher  schools  the 
number  shall  not  be  more  than  40;  for  all  others  the 
maximum  is  30.  The  edict  of  Prussia,  issued  in  1894, 
specifies  40  as  the  largest  number  allowed  per  class  in 
secondary  schools  for  girls.  Where  such  limits  have 
not  been  set,  it  would  be  of  material  help  if  at  least  for 
the  more  difficult  courses  the  overcrowded  classes  of 
high  schools  were  divided  into  two  sections. 

In  speaking  of  classes  of  fifty  it  was  not  intended 
to  indicate  this  number  as  a  hygienic  ideal.  It  is 
mentioned  as  being  hygienic  only  by  contrast  with 
the  overcrowded  condition  of  pul)lic  and  high  schools 
everywhere,  and  })ecause  it  promises  to  be  a  possible 
ideal.     Overcrowding  is  an  evil  which  has  crept  into 


THE  HYGIENE  OF  INSTRUCTION        91 

the  schools  because  formerly  no  liyp;ienic  limits  were 
thousht  necessary,  and  so  deep-rooted  has  it  become 
that  to  make  too  radical  demands  at  once,  as  for  in- 
stance those  of  the  Danish  law,  would  defeat  the  ends 
in  view  and  mean  no  progress.  The  subject  of  the 
number  of  children  to  a  class  has  been  discussed  in 
detail  because  of  its  pedagogical  and  hygienic  sig- 
nificance. If  in  this  direction  a  public  spirited  com- 
munity should  feel  impelled  to  make  sacrifices  not 
demanded  l:)y  law,  it  may  rest  assured  that  funds  so 
invested  will  bear  satisfying  interest  in  the  increased 
health  of  its  children. 

School  Hours. — Tlie  morning  is  the  ])est  time  for 
school  work,  but  one  of  the  most  important  require- 
ments for  the  development  of  the  child  is  sufficient 
sleep.  The  sad  story  of  children  shortening  their 
hours  of  sleep  because  they  nuist  engage  in  industrial 
pursuits  will  not  be  gone  into  here;  it  is  mentioned  only 
to  emphasize  the  fact  that  enough  sleep  is  the  absolute 
right  of  every  child — and  the  recognition  of  the  rights 
of  the  weak  marks  the  culture  of  any  civilization. 
But  in  addition  to  individual  work,  there  maj'--  be  other 
conditions  in  the  home  which  will  prevent  early  re- 
tirement; the  child  may  hve  a  long  way  from  the 
school,  and  the  home  work  required  may  be  so  heavy 
as  to  shorten  the  hours  of  sleep.  Bicycling  to  school, 
or  daily  travel  by  train  may  be  bad  for  the  child  if  the 
way  is  too  long  and  the  trains  are  run  at  inconvenient 
hours.  At  any  rate,  conditions  are  not  right  when  the 
child  must  be  awakened  from  sleep.  Every  child 
should  be  trained  to  wash  and  dress  himself  properly, 
and  to  breakfast  without  haste.     To  begin  the  day 


92  SCHOOL  HYGIENE 

in  a  state  of  hurry  is  harmful  to  health.  In  the 
case  of  little  children,  a  long  walk  to  school  which  in 
the  winter  must  be  begun  when  it  is  still  dark,  and 
morning  classes  with  artificial  light,  are  often  di^tri- 
mental  to  health.  On  the  other  hand,  early  school 
hours  may  prove  an  advantage  to  children,  for  in- 
stance when  the  parents  work  in  factories;  the  ciiild 
may  thus  enjoy  the  comfort  of  a  warm  room  in  tii(? 
schoolhouse  instead  of  spending  an  uncomfortable 
hour  at  home.  And,  again,  conditions  in  rural  com- 
munities are  different  from  those  in  the  city —  in  the 
country  jjeople  retire  early  and  arise  early.  Hence  it 
is  7iot  possible  to  lay  down  any  hard  and  fast  rule  as 
to  the  most  hygienic  hours  for  opening  school,  although 
with  regard  to  the  city  it  is  generally  admitted  that 
nine  o'clock  is  the  most  desirable  time,  at  an}''  rate  in 
winter. 

Carrying  of  Books. — The  ])est  way  to  carry  books, 
both  for  })oys  and  girls,  is  in  a  knapsack  attached  to 
the  shoulders  by  broad  straps.  The  daily  carrying  of 
books  on  one  side  of  the  body,  either  by  a  strap  or  in 
the  hand  or  arm,  results  in  many  cases  of  lateral 
curvature  of  the  spine,  especially  among  girls.  Fig. 
36  illustrates  the  different  positions  which  the  body 
assumes  with  different  methods  of  carrying  books. 
It  is  becoming  increasingl}^  customary,  even  in  girls' 
sch(X)ls,  to  require  the  children  to  carry  knapsacks, 
but  the  enforcement  of  their  use  is  not  all  that  is 
necessary;  the  bag  must  not  be  too  heavy,  or  the 
consequences  may  be  a  bent  back  or  collarbone. 
The  weights  which  children  are  obliged  to  carry  are 
sometimes  very  considerable  in  proportion  to  their 


THE  HYGIENI-:  OV  INSTIUKJTION 


•)3 


body  weight,  the  hooks  af^fircgatiug  one-fifth  of  the 
whole  weigiit  of  the  child,  as  has  l)een  shown  by 
the  investigations  of  J'^ulenberg  in  Berhn.  Hence 
this  matter  has  long  received  the  attention  of  school 
boards.     It  is,  of  course,  a  fact  that  many  children, 


Fig.  36. — Two  ways  of  carrying  books.    Note  the  diagrammatJic 

outline. 


and  especially  the  younger  ones,  like  to  carry  books 
which  they  do  not  need,  and  parents  and  teachers 
should  be  urged  to  make  an  occasional  inspection  of  the 
school  bag  to  see  that  it  contains  only  what  is  necessary ; 
but  again  it  will  often  be  found  that  children  are  re- 


94  SCHOOL  HYGIENE 

quired  to  carry  great  piles  of  books.  In  the  London 
schools  it  has  long  been  the  general  custom  to  leave 
books  not  needed  at  home  in  the  school;  in  some  cases 
rooms  provided  with  shelves  are  set  aside  for  this 
purpose.  Prussia,  also,  has  made  this  provision  in 
girls'  schools.  In  Austria  the  law  provides  that 
school  books  must  be  lif;lit  in  \\'(Mght;  that  is,  where 
formerly  a  book  was  published  for  use  during  several 
years,  it  is  now  published  separately  for  each  year. 

Inspection  for  Personal  Cleanliness. — It  is  greatly 
to  be  recomnunidcHl  tiiat  at  the  beginning  of  school, 
the  teacher  inspect  the  (^hildn^n  from  the  standpoint  of 
cleanliness,  rej)rimanding  those  who  come  uncombed 
or  with  dirty  fingernails.  Unfortunately,  merely 
sending  a  note  to  the  parents  of  neglected  children 
does  not  help  materially;  but  much  can  be  done  if  the 
school  is  equipped  with  practical  washing  arrange- 
ments^ as  in  London,  and  the  children  are  educated  in 
cleanliness.  In  Vienna,  Tluchor  has  advocated  mark- 
ing for  cleanlinc^ss,  which  is  to  be  warmly  recom- 
mended trying  first  of  all.  In  some  countries  it  is 
customary  for  the  children  to  kiss  th(!  hand  of  the 
instructor  at  the  beginning  of  school,  but  this  is  a 
mark  of  courtesy  which  should  })e  discouraged  l)y 
teachers,  as  contagious  diseases  may  be  spread  in 
this  way. 

Length  of  Instruction  Periods. — In  watching  any 
lecture  audience,  it  is  observed  that  after  about 
three-cpiarters  of  an  hour  many  persons  will  ])egin  to 
siiift  in  their  seats;  they  will  yawn,  and  in  other  ways 
demonstrate  that  the  period  of  attention  is  too  long, 
though  their  attendance  is  voluntary  and  no  other 


THi']  ii\(;ii;M';  oj'  instiuctiox      ds 

kH'turc  may  lia.vc  ])r(>c('(l(Ml,  iior  is  one  to  follow.  ]*'or 
tlu'  Ix'st.  ])('(laji()f;ical  results  we  i-('(iuir(>  ol"  the  chikil 
th:it  he  shall  ^Wv  mulivi(l(>(l  attention,  and  aeeonlinf? 
to  the  nvw  niethoils  of  t(>achinj>;  we  endeaA'or  to  hold 
this  attention  by  (luestions  dii'eeted  now  to  this  i-hild 
and  now  to  that.  Hut  it  is  probahle  that  the  f»;rea.t 
mass  of  the  i)ui)ils  is  unable  to  follow  the  instruction 
intensively,  though  there  arc  varying  degrees  of  in- 
attention, aeeording  to  the  age  of  th(>  childnMi,  the 
number  of  y(>ars  they  have  attended  school,  a.cc(»rding 
to  the  t.o]iic  under  discussion,  the  ])ersonality  of  the 
teacher  and  tJie  nunib(>r  and  character  of  the  ])r(M'e(Jing 
le-ssons,  et(\  \\hile  as  a,  rule  the  ina,ttention  of  the 
pu])il  will  act  as  a  safety  valve,  as  Krae])elin  has  said, 
])rotecting  tlu^  child  from  being  overtaxtnl,  it  is  sur(>ly 
regretta,bl(>  that  the  majority  of  t he  i)U])ils  in  a.  class- 
room is  c()m])elled  to  i-eceiv(^  instruc^tion  for  longer  t  han 
tiie  ])rofitable,  recei)tivo  period.  \\'(>  are  as  yet 
ignorant  as  to  the  exact  number  of  minutes  during 
which  most  childnMi  are  i)hysi()logically  ixhW  to  give 
strict  attention  under  conditions  which  vary  from  hour 
to  hour,  and  da>-  to  daA',  although  a  beginning  in  this 
direction  has  been  made.  Hut  even  if  we  ])ossessed 
this  information,  a  strict  adherence  to  any  such  ideal 
would  be  im|)i-;i('tieable  in  the  school.  The  above 
illustration  of  the  lecture  audience  does,  however, 
s(HMn  to  in(li(vit('  thai  we  can  not  dem;uul  of  th(>  child 
a  full  hour  of  undi\ided  attention,  nuich  less  a  second 
hour.  l']nduraiice  tests  that  hav(^  been  made  with 
figui'ing  and  writing  from  dictation  seem  to  coiroborate 
this  assuni])tion. 

liut  there  an;  still  other  considerations  w  hich  con- 


96  SCHOOL  HYt;iEN10 

deiiin  the  long  lesson.  The  air  of  the  room  under- 
goes unfavorable  changes,  a  fact  which  becomes 
doubly  significant  when  the  children  are  bending 
over  and  are  engaged  in  mental  work;  the  result  is  a 
shallower,  less  forceful  breathing.  These  facts,  and 
the  additional  hj-gienic  necessitj^  of  shortening  the 
period  of  sitting  still  because  of  the  need  of  exercise 
and  relaxation  from  eye  strain  seem  to  make  it  clear 
that  a  classroom  lesson  should  not  exceed  forty-five 
minutes  in  duration  and  should  always  be  followed  by 
a  recess.  In  the  case  of  beginners,  even  this  period 
should  be  interrupted  l)y  a  three- minut(^  pause  during 
which  the  children  can  relax  and  chat.  Some  brief 
gymnastic  exercises  as  originated  in  1904  in  New 
York  are  to  be  recommended  for  the  recess  period, 
though  the  end  would  be  defeated  if  the  pause  were 
devoted  solely  to  this  purpose.  Mohaupt,  the  experi- 
enced school  director  of  Leipa  (Austria)  has  for  a 
long  time  allowed  these  "talk"  pauses,  in  the  interests 
of  hygiene.  For  beginners,  half- hour  instead  of  hour 
lessons  have  been  instituted  in  the  Berlin  public; 
schools  since  1898.  In  the  province  of  Hessen  (Ger- 
many) the  forty-five  minute  lesson  was  regulated  by  a 
decree  in  1883,  although  it  had  already  been  generally 
adopted  previousl3^  Prussia  has  made  three-quarter- 
hour  classes  in  the  high  schools  obligatory  since  1911; 
such  periods  had  been  the  custom  since  1909.  Keller 
in  Winterthur  (Switzerland)  has  even  carried  out 
forty-minute  lessons. 

Recesses. — As  has  already  been  stated,  recesses  are 
an  absolute;  hygienic  necessity.  The  rapid  deteriora- 
tion of   the  air  of   the   classroom   makes  a  thorough 


THE  HYCIENE  OF  INSTRUCTION        97 

aiiinj;-  imperative,  the  eyes  should  have  opportunity 
to  ghin(!e  at  objects  at  a  longer  range  (nearsighted- 
ness, p.  157),  and  there  should  ])e  an  o'pportunity 
for  breathing  more  deeply.  The  circulation,  also,  is 
stimulated  by  the  change  from  a  sitting  position, 
and  there  is  a  release  of  abdominal  pressure.  The 
children  must  also  have  time  to  attend  to  their 
bodily  needs.  Too  long  sitting  on  a  warm  seat  may 
likewise^  stimulate  the  sex  organs. 

From  the  preceding  it  is  (dear  that  not  only  must 
there  be  recesses,  but  such  intervals  must  be  used  to 
advantage.  Above  all,  the  pupils  must  leave  the 
classroom  in  a  body,  so  that  the  room  may  be  aired 
thoroughly.  This,  again,  brings  up  the  matter  of 
recreation  rooms  and  playgrounds  and  emphasizes 
their  necessit3^  When  returning  to  the  classroom, 
after  having  been  in  the  open,  the  children  bring 
in  fresh  air  with  them.  It  is  also  clear  that  the 
children  need  some  exercise  during  the  recess  period, 
but  it  entirely  defeats  the  object  of  the  recess  merely 
to  marshall  the  children  up  and  down.  With  reference 
to  recesses,  the  words  of  the  Japanese  Minister  of 
Education,  embodied  in  the  decree  of  1894,  are  perti- 
nent: ''The  joyous  abandonment  of  children  to  their 
sports,  screaming  and  racing,  is  not  to  be  counted  as 
bad  behavior,  nor  are  those  who  sit  about  entitled  to 
special  credit  on  that  account."  Many  American 
autl  European  teachers  consider  loud  noises  during 
recess  an  indication  of  bad  discipline  and  yet  hun- 
dreds of  children  at  play,  if  they  are  to  play 
joyously,  can  not  of  necessity  bo  mute.  It  is,  of 
course,  not  wise  to  devote  the  entire  recess  (twenty 


98  SCHOOL  HYGIENE 

minutes)  to  verj"-  strenuous  plaj',  because  although  this 
might  be  beneficial  to  phj'sical  health,  sucli  exertion 
tends  to  diminish  the  mental  energy  required  for  the 
ensuing  period  (p.  120).  The  same  can  be  said  of 
gymnastic  drills,  which  demand  strict  attention  and 
strenuous  muscular  work,  for  we  are  not  yet  in  a  posi- 
tion to  demand  that  active  play  and  exercise  shall 
be  followed  b}-  a  period  of  absolute  rest.  A  recess 
offers  a  good  opportunity  to  take  a  l)it  of  food  or  a 
drink  of  pasteurized  milk,  served  warm  or  cold,  ac- 
cording to  the  season.  However,  the  eating  of  sweets 
or  eating  just  before  the  noon-da}^  meal  should  not  be 
tolerated. 

In  regard  to  the  length  of  the  pause  between  two 
lessons,  it  is  evident  that  one  of  five  minutes'  duration 
will  not  be  sufficient  for  large  schools,  for  in  that 
time  it  will  not  be  possible  even  to  take  the  children 
to  the  recess  place,  much  less  give  them  time  to 
satisfy  the  appetite  which  they  naturally  feel  if  the 
breakfast  has  been  light.  In  addition,  time  must 
be  allowed  for  other  necessities.  It  seems  nec- 
essary, therefore,  that  a  fortj'-five  minute  lesson 
should  be  followed  by  a  recess  of  at  least  fifteen 
minutes.  Naturally,  part  of  the  fifteen  minutes  will 
be  taken  up  in  passing  to  the  yard  and  back  again. 
The  recess  should  never  be  forefeited  on  account  of 
bad  behavior. 

The  objection  might  be  raised  that  the  recess  period 
means  a  pedagogical  loss,  corres])onding  to  the  length 
of  time  devoted  to  recreation.  On  this  point  we  desire 
to  cite  an  investigation  which  serves  at  the  same  time 
to  illustrate  the  test  methods  mentioned  on  page  77. 


THK  iiyc;ii:ne  of  instruction 


99 


Fig.  37. — Tlie  effect  of  recess  periods  on  work  in  arithmetic  and 
dictation,  according  to  Friedrich. 


100  SCHOOL  HYGIENE 

In  an  investigation  conducted  by  Friedrich  as  to  the 
working  ability  of  ten-year-old  boys  in  the  public 
schools  with  or  without  recesses,  the  following  con- 
clusions, which  are  graphically  shown  in  Fig.  37, 
were  obtained.  The  tests  consisted  of  dictation  and 
arithmetic.  The  children  were  examined  before 
school,  after  the  first  hour,  and  again  after  the  second 
and  third;  also  in  the  afternoon  session,  before  and 
after  the  first  hour,  and  after  the  second.  Fig.  37 
shows  on  the  lower  line  the  time  when  the  tests  wera 
made,  on  the  left-hand  side,  the  average  percentages 
of  failures  in  dictation  (Diet.)  and  arithmetic  (Arith.). 
The  results  shown  in  the  figure  were  produced  under 
the  following  conditions: 

Morning  Session 

a  —  b     =  tests  made  before  the  first  hour 
c  —  d     =  tests  made  after  the  first  hour 
"e  —  f      =  tests  made  after  2  hours,  with  a  recess  of  8  minutes 

between 
e  —  g     =  tests  made  after  2  hours  without  recess 
h  —  i      =  tests  made   after    3    liours  with  a  recess   of  fifteen 

minutes  each  after  the  1st  and  2nd  hours 
h  —  k    =  tests  made  after  3  hours  with  only  one  recess  of 

fifteen  minutes  after  the  2iid  liour 
li  —  1     =  tests  made  after  3  hours  with  no  recess. 

Afternoon  Session 

m  —  n   =  tests  made  before  the  first  hour 
o  —  p     =  tests  made  after  first  hour 

r  —  s      =  tests  made  after  2  hours  with  recesses  of  fifteen  min- 
utes after  the  first  and  second  hours 
r  —  t      =  tests  made  after  2  hours  with  no  recess. 

The   effect    of    the   recess    is    shown    in    tiie    dif- 
ferences which  tlu!  lines  f-g,  i-k,  k-1,  i-I,  and  s-t  ex- 


TTTTs  TIYGIENJO  OF  INSTRUCTION      101 

press  respectively  fur  ilie  luoruiu};-  and  afternoon. 
Tlie  recess  periods  w(n-e  taken  from  the  lesson 
time.  Tlie  significance  of  the  investigation  is  this,  it 
brings  out  (dearly  that  the  time  lost  in  lessons  and  de- 
voted to  recreation  is  compensated  for  by  the  in- 
creased mental  productivity  of  the  chiklren. 

Order  of  Subjects. — In  regard  to  the  order  of 
subjects  in  the  curriculum,  it  is  to  be  recommended 
that  those  subjects  demanthng  n^flection  and  memory, 
if  i)ossible  should  come  early  in  the  morning  session, 
and  such  as  require  the  best  day-light,  like  writing, 
drawing  and  fine  handwork  should  be  reserved  for 
the  brightest  part  of  the  day,  as  has  been  prescribed 
in  Austria  since  1878.  Two  periods  in  which  the 
pupils  use  their  eyes  at  near  range  should  not  follow 
each  other.  It  must  be  admitted  that  the  depart- 
mental system  of  high  school  offers  difficulties  often 
insurmountable,'  in  carrying  out  a  plan  of  this  kind. 

It  would  be  of  value  if  we  knew  exactly  the  fatigue 
point  of  the  various  subjects  in  the  curriculum. 
For  example,  we  know  that  it  is  less  fatiguing  to 
pupils  in  the  high  school  to  devote  an  hour  to  de- 
scribing a  num])er  of  growing  plants,  of  which  they 
have  specimens,  than  to  spend  the  same  length  of  time 
on  a  geography  lesson,  tracing  out  intricate  mountain 
systems  on  a  map,  although  in  both  cases  the  subject 
is  nature  study.  Likewise,  it  makes  a  great  difference 
in  a  foreign  language  class  whether  the  task  is  trans- 
lation of  an  already  familiar  author,  or  a  lesson  in 
sj^ntax,  and  in  mathematics,  whether  the  time  be 
devoted  to  grasping  the  principle  of  the  new  ab- 
breviated   method    of    multiplication    or    mechanical 


102  SCHOOL  HYGIENE 

practice  when  it  is  fully  understood.  In  addition,  we 
must  take  account  of  the  great  diversity  of  i)ersonaiity 
in  the  individual  teacher,  so  far  as  pedagogical  (Xjuii)- 
ment,  patience,  strength,  etc.,  are  concerned.  Because 
of  deficiency  in  these  qualities  it  may  hap])en  that  the 
"easiest"  subject  may  become  the  most  difficult  for 
the  children.  Thus  it  will  be  seen  that  it  is  not  easy 
to  determine  the  fatigue  capacity  of  any  particular 
subject.  Before  we  can  arrive  at  the  scientific  ar- 
rangement of  subjects  according  to  their  difficult}^  for 
the  pupil  much  intensive  research  work  on  fatigue 
must  needs  be  done.  Physical  exercise  also  plays  an 
interesting  part  as  we  shall  see  later. 

The  One  or  Two-session  Day. — A  much  discussed 
question  is  the  uue  or  the  two-session  day.  It  is 
not  possible  in  the  case  of  all  schools  to  complete 
the  curriculum  during  the  morning,  especially  if 
the  opening  hour  be  late.  A  division  of  the  work 
between  the  morning  and  afternoon,  with  a  long  inter- 
mission between  is  not  objectionable  on  theoretical 
grounds  if  conditions  for  both  sessions  are  equally 
favorable,  as  in  boarding  school,  but  in  the  majority 
of  day.schools  this  is  not  the  case.  The  chief  difficulty 
is  offered  by  the  noon-day  meal,  not  to  mention  the 
other  disadvantages  of  unfavorable  light  on  winter 
afternoons,  oppressive  heat  in  the  summer,  as  well 
as  the  fact  that  many  children  feel  certain  depres- 
sing psychic  influences  during  the  noon  period,  such 
as  may  be  caused  by  impending  examinations.  In 
many  countries,  especially  in  l^]urope,  it  is  customary 
to  have  the  chief  meal  of  the  day  at  noon — a  hy- 
gienically  disadvantageous  arrangement,   which  was 


THK  HYCJIENK  OF  INSTRUCTION       103 

(Iis(uisso(l  by  the  autlior  t went v-five  years  ago,*  and  in 
regard  to  which  j)ubHc  opinion  is  slowly  changing. 
The  princii)al  meal  of  the  day  is  followed  by  great 
physiological  exertion,  i.e.,  the  work  of  digestion,  during 
which  a  greatly  increased  volume  of  blood  is  dis- 
tributed among  the  digestive  organs.  The  adult  very 
jjlainly  feels  a  need  for  physical  and  mental  rest,  and 
if  he  forces  himself  immediately  after  into  energetic 
work  his  digestion  is  likely  to  suffer.  The  digestive 
process  is  even  more  important  for  the  child  because 
digestion  in  his  case  is  not  merely  a  matter  of  metab- 
olism, a  Ijuilding  up  to  replace  what  has  been  torn 
down,  but  also  of  growth.  The  tremendous  physio- 
logical effect  is  readily  realized  by  the  teacher  of  the 
afternoon  classes,  who  on  his  part  is  also  conscious  of  a 
f('{>ling  of  lassitude.  Hence  the  afternoon  instruction 
will  be  very  fatiguing  and  the  result  below  what  other- 
wise it  might  be.  (Compare  tests  made  during  morn- 
ing and  afternoon  session,  as  shown  by  Fig.  37,  p.  99). 
In  addition,  we  frequently  have  unfavorable  psychic 
states,  as  already  mentioned;  and  the  conscientious 
pupil  will  shorten  his  dinner  hour  to  prepare  for  the 
afternoon,  or  the  way  back  to  school  may  be  so  long 
that  the  period  of  rest  can  be  but  brief. 

The  work  of  Schmid-Monnard  (Fig.  38),  must  be 
mentioned  in  this  connection.  An  investigation  was 
made  by  him  for  the  purpose  of  determining  the  per- 
centages of  illness  of  pupils  in  Halle  (Germany)  in 
the  case  of  those  who  attended  afternoon  sessions 
and  thos(>  who  went  to  school  only  during  the  morning 

*This  discussion  also  appeared  sixteen  years  ago  in  the  first 
edition  of  u\y  "  Handbuch  der  Schiilhygiene." 


104 


SCHOOL  HYGIENE 


Fic.  38. — Schinid-Monnard's  curves  of  illness  among  pupils 
in  Halle,  Germany.  The  dotted  line  shows  the  percentages  of 
illness  among  those  who  attended  both  morning  and  afternoon 
sessions.  Tlie  continuous  line  shows  the  percentages  of  those 
who   attended  only   the  morning  session. 

hours.     His  material  included  2100  boys  who  attended 
both  sessions,  540  who  hud  only  the  morning  work; 


THE  hyc;i1':ne  or  iNSTiiucrnoN     lo") 

]900  girls  of  l)<)Mi  sessions,  and  480  wlio  went  to  .school 
only  in  the  morning.  Tho  result,  as  expressed  by  the 
curves  of  Fig.  38,  needs  no  comment.  Steinhaus 
found  similar  conditions  in  Dortmund  (Germany). 

The  case  stands  differcnitly  where  a  more  sensible 
division  of  the  day  obtains — a  hearty  and  later  break- 
fast, later  beginning  of  school,  a  very  hght  meal  in 
the  middle  of  the  day,  which  might  even  be  eaten  in 
school  during  the  intermission,  and  the  main  meal 
at  the  end  of  the  working  day  in  (iommon  with  all 
the  family:  The"  one-session  school  day  is  in  use 
in  a  number  of  German  cities,  in  Hessen,  and  in 
Denmark,  whil{>  in  Austria  there  is  a  tendency  in 
that  direction,  especially  in  the  higher  schools.  An- 
other great  disadvantage  of  the  two-session  day  is 
this,  that  the  pupil's  time  is  so  distributed,  especially 
in  tjhe  city,  as  to  leave  but  small  opportunity  for 
phj^sical  exercise,  walking,  skating,  swimming,  etc. 
For  that  reason,  the  single  session  was  introduced  in 
the  gymnasium  (Latin  school)  of  Giessen  (Germany) 
as  early  as  1883,  where  five  short  periods,  with  recesses 
between,  make  a  session  of  four  and  a  half  hours. 
Five  periods  with  comfortable  pauses  between  are 
entirely  feasible  for  secondary  schools.  The  .  decree 
of  Prussia,  passed  in  1911,  permits  even  six  consecutive 
forty-five-minute  periods — a  provision  which  seems 
practicable  in  that  it  leaves  the  afternoon  free,  though 
it  may  not  be  desirable  from  other  standpoints.  Con- 
sidering all  things,  it  is  clear  that  the  lengthened 
morning  session  of  consecutive,  short  lesson  periods, 
broken  by  recesses,  is  the  lesser  evil  in  comparison 
with    the    long  two-session  school  day    The  curric- 


106  SCHOOL  HYGIENE 

ulum  as  it  exists  in  many  hish  schools  doniands  of 
the  pupils  too  many  hours  of  desk  work,  both  in  the 
school  and  at  home. 

3.  The  Hygiene  of  Different  School  Subjects. 

Reading. — Reading  may  be  harmful  if  the  lighting 
is  bad,  if  the  seating  is  faulty  and  if  the  print  is 
poor.  Large  print,  such  as  is  usually  found  in  prim- 
ers, is  necessary  for  the  beginner,  but  the  upper 
limit,  that  is,  letters  measuring  14  millimeters,  should 
not  be  exceeded,  because  the  eye  in  fixing  on  a  certain 
point  at  a  distance  as  is  usual  in  reading,  can  not 
readily  distinguish  beyond  a  radius  of  7  millimeters. 
The  transition  from  the  larger  primer  print  to  the 
smaller  normal  print  should  be  gradual.  For  be- 
ginners the  use  of  a  "reading  machine"  is  of  great 
benefit;  very  large  letters,  Avhich  are  not  limited  to 
the  above-mentioned  size,  are  placed  on  the  teacher's 
desk  or  on  the  blackboard,  and  the  children  sitting 
comfortably  in  their  seats  learn  with  ease.  Graupner 
has  set  66  millimeters  as  the  fitting  height  for  these 
letters.  During  this  exercise,  the  children  should 
not  sit  so  that  the  light  from  the  window  strikes  into 
tneir  eyes. 

For  the  school  books  themselves  Herman  Cohn  has 
laid  down  the  following  hygienic  rules: 

The  main  strokes  of  the  type  in  the  body  of  the 
book  should  be  at  least  0.25  millimeters  in  thick- 
ness and  the  breadth  of  the  letters  such  that  not 
more  than  seven  of  these  come  to  a  centimeter. 
The  lines  should  be  no  more  than  10  centimeters 


TH1-:  HYGIENE  OF  INSTRUCTION      107 

in  length  and  the  letter  "n"  about  15  millimeters 
high  with  the  distance  between  the  short  letters 
in  two  consecutive  lines  at  least  2.5  millimeters. 
This  may  readily  be  seen  in  the  present  specimen 
from  the  distance  between  the  letters  "s"  at  the 
end  of  the  first  and  second  lines  on  this  page. 
This  specimen,  furthermore,  illustrates  all  the 
above  mentioned  requirements.  (The  length  of 
the  lines  here  illustrated  is  only  8.4  centimeters.) 

Schubert  in  Nurembors  (Gerinany)  who  has  made 
a  special  study  of  school  books  has  orginated  the 
conception  of  Druckdichtigkeit  (thickness  of  print)  as 
a  criterion.  Cohn  then  invented  the  "line  counter 
and  al])habet  measure"*  which  can  readily  be  made  at 
home  by  cutting  a  square  centimeter  opening  in  a 
visiting  card,  measuring  off  on  two  neighboring  sides 
of  the  square  a  scale  of  millimeters  and  half  milli- 
meters and  also  striking  a  line  0.3  millimeter  thick 
to  the  brim  of  the  card.  When  the  little  apparatus 
is  laid  on  a  page  not  more  than  two  printed  lines  should 
appear  in  the  liolc,  and  the  thickness  of  the  letter 
strokes  should  not  be  greater  than  the  0.3  millimeter 
test  mark.  The  print  should  be  in  deep  black  ink, 
sharply  defined;  the  paper  not  glossy,  and  no  print 
must  show  through  on  the  other  side.  In  reading, 
the  distance  of  the  eyes  from  the  book  should  be  as 
great  as  the  height  of  the  child  permits.  Children 
are  apt  to  lessen  the  distance  to  a  point  which  is  in- 
jurious to  the  eyes,  not  only  because  an  erect  posture 

*This  "Zciloiizahlcr  uiid  Buchstalxniincsser"  can  1)(>  procured 
from  F.  Tiessen  of  Brcslau,  Germany. 


108  SCHOOL  HYGIENE 

demands  more  work  of  the  muscles  than  a  stooped 
position,  l)ut  })0('ause  the  image  thrown  by  the  object 
on  the  retina  appears  hirger  with  a  shorter  range. 
The  result  is  bad  posture. 

It  is,  of  course,  true  that  the  above-mentioned  re- 
quirements of  Cohn  are  frequently  disregarded,  but 
that  they  can  be  met  has  been  proved  in  the  schools  of 

'RSDX  mBSW  9^^313)    and     EASILY  READ 

Fig.  39. 

Basel  (Switzerland)  since  1886.  In  the  maps  used  by 
the  children  in  their  atlases  as  well  as  the  wall  maps, 
only  the  relevant  matter  should  be  included,  making 
it  possible  to  use  larger  print  and  preventing  un- 
necessary eye  strain  attendant  upon  searching  for  the 
required  point  among  a  number  of  others.  Care  must 
also  be  taken  at  home  to  see  that  the  children  do  not 

Fig.  40. 

read  badly  printed  books,  in  a  jDoor  light,  in  a  bad 
posture,  or  for  too  long  a  time. 

The  children  of  Austria,  Germany,  and  Switzerland 
are  obliged  to  become  familiar  with  eight  varieties  of 
type,  that  is.  Old  English  and  Roman  letters,  capital 
and  small  letters,  and  printing  and  writing  alphabets. 
Lately  a  tendency  is  becoming  manifest  to  turn  the 


THE  HYGIENE  OF  INSTRUCTION      109 

attention  onl}^  to  the  Roman  alphabet.  The  greater 
ease  with  which  the  latter  can  be  read  is  illustrated 
by  Fig.  39,  which  compares  "not  easily  read"  in  Old 
English  with  'easily  read"  in  Roman  type.  Compare 
also  the  intricate  curves  of  the  Old  English  "B" 
(Fig.  39)  with  the  simple  lines  of  the  same  letter  in 
Roman  type,  also  the  small  letters  of  the  German 
script.  Fig.  40.  It  would  be  a  great  gain  in  hygiene 
if  the  substitution  of  Latin  for  Old  English  type  could 
be  made  in  German  books.  Of  course,  the  great 
difficulty  is  that  the  Old  English  type  is  regarded  as 
essentially  characteristic  of  the  German  language 
although  so  eminent  an  authority  as  Jacob  Grimm 
has  shown  the  error  of  this  assumption.* 

Writing. — Writing  is  a  matter  even  more  serious 
than  reading.  For  children  who  begin  to  learn  at 
home,  the  slate  is  to  be  condemned  altogether,  and 
pencil  and  paper,  and  eventually  pen  and  ink  should 
be  substituted  instead.  The  slate  easily  becomes 
scratched  and  gray,  the  writing  on  it  is  gray  and 
difficult  to  decipher,  while  the  fingers  of  the  child 
often  assume  a  cramped  position  because  of  the  hard- 
ness of  the  writing  material.  The  slate  pencil  is  also 
quickly  blunted.  In  school,  where  the  teacher  can 
not  give  undivided  attention  to  each  child,  the  dis- 
advantages increase,  for  the  children  will  spit  on  the 
sponge  or  the  rag  with  which  they  wipe  the  slate, 
and  worse  yet,  lend  these  articles  to  their  neighbors. 
At  any  rate,  the  slate  should  not  be  used  beyond  the 
first  year  of  school.  It  has  been  abolished  entirely 
in  some  cities,  for  instance,  in  Berne  (Switzerland)  and 

*See  his  Deutsches  Wortcrbuch,  Vol.  I,  p.  lii. 


110  SCHOOL  HYGIENE 

in  Klagenfurt  (Austria).  On  the  European  continent 
trials  have  been  made  at  various  times  to  invent  a 
white  equivalent  for  the  slate  but  so  far  no  success 
has  attended  these  efforts. 

The  surface  of  the  Avriting  paper  should  not  be 
rough,  shiny  or  transparent;  the  height  of  the  note- 
book must  not  be  over  20  centimeters,  and  the  length 
of  the  lines  not  over  11  centimeters;  the  higher  and 
wider  the  book,  the  easier  it  will  be  for  the  children 
to  fall  into  bad  positions.  Badalini  of  Rome  in  his 
exhaustive  researches  extending  over  many  years  has 
demonstrated  the  fact  that  respiration  is  diminished  in 
consequence  of  bad  position.  The  small  letters  of  the 
writing  should  not  be  less  than  3  millimeters  high; 
letters  over  5  millimeters  are  too  large  in  proportion 
to  the  finger  length  of  small  children.  The  children 
should  also  be  watched  at  home,  so  that  they  will  not 
get  into  the  habit  of  writ'ng  too  small. 

Schubert  who  has  made  the  greatest  contribution  to 
the  hygiene  of  this  subject  has  drawn  up  certain  rules, 
substantially  the  following.  In  writing,  the  notebook 
must  lie  directly  in  front  of  the  bodj^;  hence  notebooks 
which  are  too  wide  must  either  be  used  in  sections  or 
moved  gradually  to  the  side  as  the  writing  proceeds. 
In  writing  from  a  copy,  the  latter  should  not  be  held 
to  the  side,  but  in  front  of  the  writer. 

An  imagined  line  passing  through  the  center  of  thte 
eyes  of  the  pupil  and  also  the  line  of  the  shoulders 
should  be  horizontal  with  the  desk  edge,  which  means 
the  upper  part  of  the  body  must  not  be  bent  forward 
or  sideways.  The  chest  must  not  be  pressed  against 
the  edge  of  the  desk,  but  kept  a  few  centimeters  away 


THE  HYGIENE  OF  INSTRUCTION      111 

from  it.  The  head  may  be  slightly  bent,  and  the  dis- 
tance of  the  eyes  from  the  work  will  then  correspond 
to  the  height  of  the  child.  The  child  should  sit  fully 
on  the  seat,  the  legs  not  crossed,  with  the  feet  placed 
firmly  on  the  floor.  The  elbows  should  be  a  hand's 
breadth  from  the  body,  two-thirds  of  the  forearm  rest- 
ing on  the  desk,  with  the  hand  only  slightly  bent  to-  • 
ward  the  left.  The  little  finger  and  the  wrist  may 
touch  the  surface  of  the  page.  The  penholder  must 
be  held  at  a  distance  from  the  pen  point,  with  the 
upper  end  not  pointing  toward  the  shoulder,  but  to- 
ward the  elbow. 

The  first  lessons  in  writing  should  be  devoted  mainly 
to  acquiring  the  correct  posture.  It  is  better  to  begin 
with  the  actual  writing  only  during  the  second  half 
of  the  first  school  year,  as  suggested  in  the  plan  of 
instruction  in  Ziirich  (Switzerland).  The  writing 
period  if  it  lasts  an  hour  should  be  interrupted 
frequently  by  a  change  of  position,  especially  if  the 
children  show  fatigue.  During  those  pauses,  the 
children  can  receive  oral  instruction  or  they  may  per- 
form such  easy  exercises  as  bending  the  neck  backward 
against  the  collar,  stretching  the  body,  etc.  In  order 
to  cultivate  good  writing  habits  it  is  necessary  to  have 
comfortable  desks  both  in  the  school  and  at  home. 

Vertical  or  Oblique  Writing. — Many  investigations 
have  been  made  into  the  superiority  or  the  inferiority 
of  the  vertical  stroke  over  the  slant  in  writing  and 
vice  versa.  Schubert  especially  has  devoted  himself 
to  the  problem.  It  is  possible  to  discuss  here  only  a 
few  of  the  controversial  points.  There  are  two  pos- 
sible positions  of  the  copybook  with  respect  to  the 


112  SCHOOL  HYGIENE 

pupil.  It  may  lie  either  in  front  of  the  body  or  to  the 
side,  but  as  the  latter  position  is  generally  considered 
impracticable,  we  need  concern  ourselves  only  with  the 
front  position.  The  book  may  lie  on  the  desk  straight, 
so  that  the  lower  edge  is  parallel  with  the  edge  of  the 
desk,  or  it  may  lie  of)liquely,  with  the  lower  edge  as- 
cending to  the  right.  The  down  stroke  of  the  pen 
must  in  any  case  be  toward  the  body.  There  are  two 
concepts  in  this  connection :  first,  the  base  line,  that  is, 
the  line  which  joins  the  middle  points  of  the  two  eyes; 
and  the  plane  formed  by  that  base  line  and  the  point 
of  fixation,  which  constitutes  the  range  of  vision. 
Imagine  a  ruled  copybook  lying  straight  on  the  desk, 
immediately  in  front  of  the  child,  who  attemptr  to 
make  down  strokes.  Under  these  conditions,  the 
writing  will  be  vertical.  But  if  the  copyljook  page  is 
laid  in  front  of  the  pupil  oblique  to  the  edge  of  the 
desk,  the  down  strokes  will  be  oblique,  and  we  have 
the  slanting  writing.  It  will  be  seen  that  the  essential 
difference  between  the  two  types  of  penmanship 
lies  in  this,  that  in  the  one  case  the  ruled  line  is  parallel 
with  the  edge  of  the  desk;  in  the  other  case  it  is 
oblique  to  the  edge.  The  movement  of  the  hand  in 
making  the  down  stroke  remains  the  same  in  either 
case,  though  this  is  not  true  of  further  strokes  as  the 
writing  proceeds. 

Experiments  and  investigations  of  many  sorts  have 
been  made  with  reference  to  the  movements  of  the 
eyes  and  head  in  reflation  to  the  down  stroke  as  well 
as  the  other  strokes,  the  distance  of  the  eyes,  the 
position  of  the  hand  and  arm.  It  has  been  found 
in  comparing  the  two  types  of  penmanship  with  refer- 


THE  HYGIENE  OF  INSTRUGTIOX      113 

ence  to  the  position  of  the  head,  the  direction  of  the 
shoulders,  the  distance  of  the  eyes  from  the  page,  that 
the  vertical  writing  gives  more  favorable  liygienic 
results.  The  childr(>n  writing  the  slant  held  the  fore- 
arm at  a  great  distance  from  the  body,  while  the  arm 
of  those  writing  vertically  was  almost  close  to  the 
body.  The  advantage  of  the  latter  position  lies  in 
this,  that  it  is  not  necessary  to  bend  the  l)ody  as 
deeply  as  when  the  arm  is  spread,  and  the  distance 
between  the  eyes  and  the  page  is  greater  with  the 
upright  position. 

Another  important  point  is  as  to  whether  the  base 
Une  is  horizontal  or  oblique,  the  left  end  lower  than 
the  right.  If  the  latter  is  the  case,  the  head  will  be 
bent  to  the  left  and  the  left  eye  is  nearer  to  the 
page  than  the  right.  The  shoulders  may  then  readily 
follow  the  same  direction,  and  the  result  may  be  an 
unhygienic  posture. 

A  seemingly  unimportant  detail  may  often  have  far- 
reaching  effects.  It  has  already  been  mentioned  that 
the  penholder  should  not  be  grasped  too  near  the 
pen  point.  Let  us  suppose,  however,  that  it  is  held 
near  the  point;  immediately  the  head  must  be  bent 
to  the  left  to  observe  the  writing,  and  if  the  head  be 
bent  in  this  direction,  the  whole  body  will  sooner  or 
later  fall  out  of  position.  Unfortunately,  this  point 
has  not  been  sufficiently  observed  in  the  comparative 
tests,  and  the  investigations  are  for  that  reason  not  as 
convincing  as  they  might  otherwise  be. 

It  is  evident,  however,  from  Schubert's  experiments 
that  vertical  writing  is  superior  to  the  oblique  be- 
cause it  does  not  cause  the  head  to  be  bent  to  the  left. 


114  SCHOOL  HYGIENE 

He  has  proved  that  as  the  writing  progresses  there  is 
a  tendency  for  the  base  Une  to  approach  that  position 
where  the  writing  Une  falls  into  the  plane  of  vision. 
This  point  is  made  clear  by  a  comparison  of  the  two 
styles  of  writing.  If  we  lay  a  piece  of  ruled  pai)cr 
straight  in  front  of  us  and  commence  writing  in  the 
vertical  stj'le  without  moving  the  head  to  the  left, 
the  base  line  is  then  horizontal.  Let  us  imagine  the 
plane  of  vision  as  extending  through  the  base  line 
and  the  point  of  fixation.  In  this  case  the  base  line 
wall  ol)liquely  cross  the  writing  line  if  we  imagine  the 
base  line  advancing  down  the  plane  of  vision.  Now 
lay  the  piece  of  paper  slantwise,  keeping  the  position 
of  the  head  as  before,  and  make  slanting  strokes. 
The  base  line  is  again  horizontal  but  it  will  not  coin- 
cide with  the  slanting  line.  If  we  imagine  the  base 
line  advancing  down  as  before  in  the  plane  of  vision, 
it  will  cross  obliquely  at  an  angle  corresponding  to 
the  degree  of  slant.  If  we  sufficiently  tilt  the  head 
and  with  it  the  base  line  to  the  left,  the  plane  of  vision 
will  come  into  such  a  position  that  the  base  line  ad- 
vancing down  it  will  obliquely  cross  the  writing  line. 
Thus  to  write  obliquely  it  is  necessary  to  bend  the 
head  to  the  left  to  secure  the  right  position  for  the 
base  line,  vision  plane  and  writing  line,  and  this 
is  Schubert's  argument  against  ol)lique  writing. 

Moreover,  the  tendency  of  bending  to  the  left  is 
intensified  when  writing  quickly.  Vertical  writing 
possesses  the  advantage  of  but  one  position  for  the 
paper — directly  in  front  of  the  writer — while  with 
slanting  penmanship  several  positions  are  possible, 
all  with  a  tendency  of  bonding  to  the  left.     Grollmuss 


THE  HYGIENE  OF  INSTRUCTION      115 

in  Leipsic  has  devised  a  guide  like  the  accompanying 
(Fig.  41),  which  is  printed  on  the  inside  cover  page  of 
copybooks.  The  book  is  placed  before  the  child  so 
that  the  heavy  line  is  parallel  to  the  edge  of  the  desk. 
Schubert,  also,  has  a  similar  line  painted  on  the 
desk. 

It  is  clear  that  vertical  handwriting  has  excellent 
points,  but  notwithstanding  this,  it  has  not  become 
officially  popular  and  in  places 
where  it  had  made  sonfe  prog- 
ress it  has  again  decreased  in 
popularity. 

The  effect  upon  posture  of 
the  slanting  penmanship  is 
less  noticeable  in  the  beginner 
who  writes  slowly  than  in  the 
pupil  who  writes  rapidly.  We 
can  readily  see  why  the  obhque        Fig.  41. — Guide  line  for 

writing  runs  off  the  pen  in  a    '""''f"}^  V^^d  by  Grollmuss 

_    °  ^  in  Leipsic. 

flowing  manner  when  we  put 

a  piece  of  paper  before  us  and  swing  the  arm  freely 
or  the  hand  from  the  wrist.  Then  the  pen  describes 
a  smooth  arc  mounting  from  left  to  right,  whose  ra- 
dius is  the  distance  between  the  point  of  the  pen  and 
the  spot  where  the  ball  of  the  hand  touches;  the  desk. 
The  tangent  of  the  chord  of  that  arc  mounting  up 
from  left  to  right  is  the  slanting  writing  line.  For 
rapid  writing  such  a  line  is  easier  to  make  than  a 
straight  one.  For  upright  writing  we  are  obliged  to 
shorten  the  hand  itself  in  making  strokes  and  to 
raise  the  whole  hand  and  forearm  oftener  as  the  writ- 
ing proceeds;  this  means  more  muscular  work  than  is 


116  SCHOOL  HYGIENE 

required  in  slanting  writing.  Hence  the  slanting  pen- 
manship is  better  adapted  for  rapid  writing  and  for 
this  reason,  perhaps,  it  is  in  almost  general  use  now, 
whereas  in  former  times  upriglit  writing  was  in  favor, 
as  is  proved  by  old  manuscripts  and  paintings. 

Handwork. — Sewing  and  fine  handwork  maj^  be 
harmful  if  the  light  is  poor  or  the  position  is  incorrect. 
Great  care  must  be  taken  to  see  that  the  pattern  of 
the  work,  its  color,  fineness  of  finish,  and  the  length 
of  time  the  pupil  spends  over  the  task,  shall  be  such 
as  not  to  cause  an  inordinate  strain  upon  the  eyes 
and  muscles  of  the  body.  When  white  embroidery, 
for  instance,  is  done  on  a  white  ground  or  black  on 
black,  especially  in  artificial  light,  the  eyes  fatigue 
rapidly.  The  female  sex  is  particularly  prone  to 
this  type  of  fatigue  called  accomodation  asthenopia, 
which  shows  its  symptoms  in  pain  over  the  eyes, 
headache  and  dizziness.  Beginners  in  sewing,  stitch- 
ing, crochet  work,  etc.,  should,  therefore,  use  rather 
coarse  materials,  and  later  on  also  no  work  should 
be  undertaken  which  is  not  discernible  at  a  distance 
of  30  centimeters  from  the  eyes. 

Domestic  Science. — In  the  department  of  practical 
household  arts  it  must  be  emphasized  that  the 
kitchens  where  the  girls  learn  to  cook,  should  be  well 
aired,  have  plenty  of  daylight,  and  the  rooms  for 
household  work  in  general  should  be  as  far  as  possible 
free  from  dust. 

Manual  Training. — Manual  training  for  boys  origi- 
nated in  Finland.  It  has  become  widespread  in  all 
the  north  Europcnm  countries,  and  is  steadily  gaining 
in  favor  in  central  Europe  also.     Our  present  point 


THE  HYGI]':NE  of  INSTHUCTION      117 


of  interest  in  it  is  wholly  hygienic.  The  work  rooms 
for  manual  training  should  above  all  be  bright  and 
airy,  free  from  dust.  Sandpaper  for  polishing  wood 
should  not  be  used  and  there  should  be  no  foul  odors, 
such  as  arise  from  ])oiling  glue.  The  glue  must  not 
be  boiled  in  the  working  room  but  in  a  niche  in  the 


Fig.  42. — Good  (left)  and  )):id  (right)  postures  at  sliopwork. 
Note  the  main  hues  of  the  body  as  shown  Ijy   the  diagrams. 

wall  with  an  outlet  to  the  chimney.  Of  special  con- 
cern is  the  position  assumed  by  the  children  during 
their  work;  of  this  Mikkelson  of  Copenhagen  has  made 
extensive  studies.  The  aim  should  be  an  erect  posi- 
tion, with  the  chest  expanded,  the  normal  curves  of 
the  spine  maintained,  and  the  internal  organs  not 
cramped.     The  two  figures  in  Fig.  42,  and  especially 


118  SCHOOL  HYGIENE 

the  small  diagrams  to  the  side,  illustrate  good  and 
bad  postures. 

With  respect  to  training  for  ambidexterity  which 
of  late  has  been  much  discussed  and  advocated,  there 
does  not  appear  to  be  much  to  be  said  in  its  favor; 
much  time  would  be  wasted  in  trying  to  teach  the 
child  to  write  with  both  hands.  The  hours  so  spent 
might  be  more  profital)l3^  used,  for  instance,  in  out- 
door exercise.  Man  is  not,  on  the  whole,  l)ilaterally 
symmetrical,  as  the  recent  studies  of  brain  function- 
ing have  proved  in  one  direction,  nor  are  any  of  the 
vertebrates  strictly  symmetrical.  Just  how  far  asym- 
metry is  the  result  of  one-sided  activity,  it  would  be 
difficult  to  demonstrate. 

Gymnastics  and  Play.^ — Gj-mnastic  exercises  and 
active  plaj^  are  of  the  greatest  hygienic  significance 
in  the  life  of  the  child.  Their  physiological  value 
has  been  set  forth  in  an  excellent  way  by  F.  A. 
Schmidt  of  Bonn  (Germany).  The  Swedish  gymnas- 
tics characterized  by  their  slow  movements  are  now 
advocated  with  success  even  in  countries  like  Ger- 
many and  Austria  where  the  system  was  formerly 
looked  on  with  disfavor,  since  the  German  Turnen 
is  characterized  ])y  the  opposite  kind  of  motion,  brief, 
spasmodic  muscular  movements.  The  latter  has  its 
fine  points  as  well  as  the  Swedish  mode  of  gymnastics, 
while  both  systems  as  well  as  skating,  swimming 
and  walking  are  excellent  exercises,  especially  as  they 
mean  time  spent  in  the  open.  These  sports  not  only 
promote  increased  breathing  and  heart  action,  but 
they  also  afford  the  eyes  opportunity  to  enjoy  long 
range  vision. 


THE  HYGIENE  OF  INSTRUCTION      119 

During  the  physical  exercises,  the  children  should 
wear   loose-fitting    garments,    and    should    carry    no 
pencils  or  other  sharp  objects  from  which  they  may 
receive  injuries.     Care  should  be  taken  to  avoid  shocks 
to   the  body;   for  instance  in  cold   weather,   violent 
exercises  should  not  be  undertaken  immediately  before 
the  children  leave  the  gymnasium.     Outdoor  play  in 
a  strong  wind  may  not  be  hygienic;  in  any  event,  in 
cold  weather  children  should  ])e  cautioned  to  put  on 
their  wraps  when  play  is  over,  and  not  to  sit  on  the 
ground.     It  is  undoubtedly  a  fact  that  new  games  are 
more  fatiguing  than  those  with  which  the  children  are 
thoroughly  familiar.     As  a  rule,  active  play  which 
involves   free,    joyous    running    about    and    jumping 
makes  a  stronger  appeal  than  do  organized  gymnastics 
without  apparatus.     Older  children  like  the  stimulat- 
ing competitive  games  which  require  decided  effort. 
The  only  objection  to  some  ball  playing  is  this,  that  it 
demands    little    change    of    place    and    gives    undue 
development  to  one  arm.     It  is  to  be  recommended  that 
in  football  it  should  devolve  upon  the  boys  themselves 
to    control    and   if   necessary   exclude    their   rougher 
companions. 

Big,  strong  fellows  who  make  fun  of  weaker,  timid 
companions  should  not  be  tolerated;  bashful  children 
must  be  especially  invited  to  join  in  the  games  and 
encouraged  in  every  way.  Care  must  be  taken  in 
regard  to  the  play  or  physical  exercise  of  children  who 
are  convalescing  from  an  illness.  A  sharp  watch 
should  be  kept  against  overexertion  and  when  a  child 
begins  to  breathe  laboriously,  complains  of  a  rapid 
heart  or  pain  in  the  side,  if  the  face  becomes  flushed  or 


120  SCHDOJ.  lIVCilENE 

very  pale,  or  if  he  suddenly  becomes  clumsy  when 
performing  simph>  tasks,  he  should  be  excused  im- 
mediately from  further  exercise.  Children  who 
can  not  take  part  in  the  exercises  because  of  a  jxissing 
indisposition  should  not  be  stationed  in  a  draughty 
corn(^r  to  watch  the  gymnastics  of  the  others,  but 
should  rather  be  sent  home. 

Many  children  have  physical  defects  which  do  not 
permit  of  strenuous  exertion.  Such  disabilities  as 
heart  (hsease  or  a  tendency  to  hernia  may  escape  the 
eye  of  the  layman,  but  they  emphasize  the  need  of 
a  medical  examination  before  children  are  admitted 
to  the  gymnasium.  Lastly,  a  point  must  be  made 
in  favor  of  a  different  exercise  curriculum  for  girls, 
because  of  their  more  delicate  build  and  weaker 
musculature. 

It  was  formerly  a  general  idea  that  physical  exercise 
should  alternate  with  mental  labor,  because  physical 
exercise  was  interpreted  to  mean  recreation;  but 
we  now  understand  that  any  severe  exertion  is 
work,  and  that  recuperation  from  exertion  of  any  kind 
requires  rest.  After  hard  play  or  after  learning  a  new 
gymnastic  exercise  which  reciuires  will  power  and 
attention,  rest  is  needed  just  as  much  as  after  scien- 
tific brain  work  (cf.  p.  75).  It  is  not  possible  to 
demonstrate  here  the  very  interesting  scientific  studies 
of  Teljatnik  in  Odessa  (Russia)  or  Oker-Blom  in 
Helsingfors  (Finland);  ])ut  one  experiment,  that  of 
Keller  in  \\'interthur  (Switzerland),  must  in  justice 
be  mentioned.  Keller  tested  among  others  a  fourteen 
year  old  boy  with  the  ergograph  to  discover,  if  possible, 
the  exact  effect  of  gynmastic  exercise.     The  test  was 


THE  HYGIENE  OF  INSTRUCTION      121 


made  at  two  separate  times,  first  after  a  lesson  and  a 
rest  period  followed  by  twenty  minutes  of  gynmastic 
movements,  interrupted  by  brief  explanations.  In 
this  case  the  arms  were  not  exercised.  The  boy  was 
then  asked  to  read.  On  another  occasion  the  boy  was 
given  a  twenty-minute  reading  lesson  first,  and  this 
was  again  followed  by  reafling.  The  ergograph  tests 
were  taken  every  twenty  minutes.  The  results  were 
better  for  the  two  consecutive  reading  periods  with- 


FiG.  43. — Ergograph  tests  made  by  Keller  of  Wintertliur, 
Switzerland,  to  determine  the  effect  of  physical  exercise  on  men- 
tal activity.  T-L  =  work  done  after  a  period  of  gymnastic  exer- 
cises followed  by  a  reading  lesson.  L-L  =  work  done  after 
two  consecutive  reading  periods. 

out  opportunity  for  exercise  or  rest  between  than 
when  there  was  physical  exercise  followed  by  reading. 
Fig.  43  shows  the  exact  work  done.  On  the  lower  line 
are  the  time  periods,  and  the  two  curves  represent  the 
work  done  with  the  ergograph — the  line  T-L  after 
gymnastic  exercises  and  reading,  and  L-L  after  two 
consecutive  reading  periods.  The  ergograph  results 
are  read  relative  to  the  scale  of  100. 

This  and  other  experiments  show  graphically  that 


122  SCHOOL  HYGIENE 

after  vigorous  bodily  exercise  rest  is  needed  as  much  as 
after  mental  strain;  and  the  experiment  illustrates  also 
that  an  hour  of  gymnastic  work  interposed  between 
periods  of  mental  activitj^  must  not  be  regarded  as 
"recreation."  If  children  are  to  grow  up  strong  and 
healthy,  they  must  have  physical  activity,  that  gained 
from  vigorous  play  and  gymnastics,  but  all  such 
exercises  demand  corresponding  rest.  From  this 
standpoint  it  must  be  admitted  that  the  curriculum  of 
many  a  school  must  be  considered  a  failure,  because  it 
does  not  promote  the  physical  health  of  the  children. 

Singing. — Singing  demands  increased  work  of  the 
lungs,  both  in  inspiration  and  expiration.  Hence  it 
follows  that  during  the  singing  period  the  air  of  the 
room  must  be  pure  and  especially  free  from  dust.  It 
is  well  to  use  a  room  which  has  not  been  occupied 
during  the  preceding  period,  and  this  is  especially 
desirable  in  winter,  when  thorough  ventilation  by 
help  of  windows  and  doors  is  difficult.  Fatigue  from 
singing  depends  upon  whether  the  songs  are  familiar 
or  new  ones  are  being  learned.  It  is  well  to  have  thj 
children  stand  when  singing,  as  the  internal  organs  have 
greater  freedom  in  that  position  of  the  body,  but  long 
continued  standing  is  very  fatiguing,  for  which 
reason,  the  singing  period  should  be  interrupted  by 
pauses  during  which  the  children  are  allowed  to  sit; 
these  pauses  might  be  used  for  explanations.  The 
singing  should  not  become  a  strain  upon  the  children. 
They  should  start  to  sing  softly,  as  the  child's  voice  is 
not  strong;  shrill,  forced  singing  should  be  cUscouraged. 
It  is  practicable,  where  children  are  able,  to  have  them 
take  part  in  two-voice  singing.     Those  who  have  colds 


THE  HYGIENE  OF  INSTRUCTION      123 

should  not  sing,  nor  those  whose  voices  are  changing. 
The  dress  at  the  neck  should  be  loose  and  comfort- 
able. Singing  should  never  be  attempted  when  walk- 
ing against  the  wind,  going  up  hill,  in  dusty  places, 
in  a  raw  or  smoky  atmosphere,  nor  immediately  after 
severe  muscular  exercise. 

This  section  has  been  limited  to  discussing  the 
hygiene  of  a  few  selected  subjects,  because,  as  already 
indicated,  reliable  data  on  which  a  sound  judgment 
could  be  based  are  not  as  yet  available  for  all  school 
subjects. 

4.  Homework,  Examinations,  Etc. 

Homework. — Homework  is  too  important  from  the 
educational  standpoint  to  be  dispensed  with,  but  if 
not  properl}^  regulated  it  may  be  detrimental  to  the 
health  of  children.  In  the  elementary  schools  only 
such  homework  should  be  assigned  as  the  children 
have  been  prepared  for  in  the  classroom,  and  not 
before  a  proper  method  of  studying  has  been  learned 
in  school,  which  includes  the  inculcation  of  good 
sitting,  reading  and  writing  habits.  We  are  of  the 
opinion  that  the  homework  generally  assigned  in 
elementary  public  schools  is  not  excessive,  although 
the  regulations  existing  in  some  cities  with  respect  to 
this  point  seem  to  indicate  such  an  undesirable  state 
of  affairs. 

The  industrial  work  of  children  is  a  sad  chapter  in 
history  which  lies  outside  the  scope  of  this  book;  and 
we  can  only  refer  the  reader  to  the  excellent  work  of 
Agahd  in  Berhn,  who  has  done  much  to  further  the 
rights  of  German  children  in  such  matters.     The  work 


124  SCHOOL  HYGIENE 

done  by  Leubuscher  in  Sachsen-Meiningcn  shows  the 
aid  that  can  be  given  by  the  school  physician  in  this 
respect.  Further,  nurses  ought  to  be  a  great  aid  in 
this  direction. 

The  contlitions  of  conii)ulsory  homework  are  some- 
what different  in  various  secondary  schools.  Here  the 
complaint  of  too  much  work  has  l^een  and  is  so 
frequent  that  school  boards  in  various  countries  have 
felt  obliged  to  pass  regulations  stipulating  the  length 
of  time  beyond  which  the  pupil  shall  not  be  taxed. 
That  such  regulations  are  not,  however,  strictly 
adhered  to  is  evidenced  by  the  remark  of  the  Prussian 
Minister  of  Education,  von  Gossler,  in  an  address 
made  by  him  in  1890  l^efore  the  Prussian  legislature: 
"The  number  of  hours  of  homework  is  indeed  fixed  by 
decree  ])ut  all  attempts  at  enforcing  the  regulations, 
all  efforts  toward  changing  conditions,  are  futile 
because  the  pride  of  teachers,  in  consequence  of  an 
ambition  which  is  in  itself  very  estimable  but  which 
should  not  be  supported,  tempts  them,  particularly 
in  the  larger  cities  to  lay  greater  stress  on  homework 
than  is  in  accord  with  my  views."  This  expresses 
the  situation  exactly.  It  is  true,  no  teacher  in  the 
secondary  school  desires  to  injure  the  health  of  his 
pupils,  but  many  a  teacher  in  his  eagerness  to  have  the 
pupils  shine  in  his  particular  subject  forgets  that  he 
himself  is  but  a  link  in  the  chain.  Often  the  true  state 
of  affairs  is  only  discovered  by  interviewing  the  parents. 
For  more  than  twenty  years  in  the  Grandduchy  of 
Hessen  it  has  been  the  rule  to  ask  the  opinion  of 
parents  and  reliable  pupils  concerning  homework 
conditions.     A   specialization    of    control    l)y    having 


THE  HYGII']NI<]  OF  INSTRUCTION      125 

one  teacher  supervise  the  uiuount  of  lioinework  to  be 
assigned  in  each  department,  or  a  single  competent 
supervisor  for  all  the  work  of  the  school  may  avert 
much  harm. 

It  is,  of  course,  difficult  to  demonstrate  th(i  unhy- 
gienic effect  of  overwork  when  ther(^  is  no  regular 
medical  inspection  concerning  health  and  develop- 
ment. To  ascertain  the  exact  effect  of  homework, 
Ke}^  of  Stockholm  made  a  study  of  ten  high  schools, 
accommodating  boys  of  eleven  to  nineteen  years,  in 
different  i)arts  of  Sweden.  The  average  time  spent 
on  homework  was  computed  with  the  assistance  of 
the  parents.  His  results  show  that  of  the  total 
number  of  3,968  pupils,  the  homework  of  1,809 
covered  a  longer  period  than  the  average  time, 
while  2,159  worked  less  than  the  average  number 
of  hours.  Among  the  1,809  pupils,  the  percentage 
of  illness  was  47.9,  among  the  2,159  it  was  only 
44.7;  that  is,  the  group  that  worked  a  longer 
period  at  home  had  3.2  percent  more  sickly  indi- 
viduals. An  analogous  investigation  made  with  re- 
gard to  the  1,873  pupils  in  all  the  high  schools  of 
Stockholm  showed  the  percentages  of  sickly  pupils  to 
be  56.1  and  50.8  respectively;  there  were  5.3  percent 
more  sickly  scholars  among  those  who  spent  more 
than  the  average  time  on  their  homework.  Further 
investigations  have  shown  that  those  who  work  the 
longest  at  their  lessons  are  often  not  the  dull  pupils, 
but  on  the  contrary,  the  bright  and  conscientious  who 
desire  to  meet  their  school  obligations  very  fully. 
The  claim  that  it  is  the  outside  work,  such  as  music 
and  language  lessons,  which  tax  the  pupil  unduly  can 


12G  SCHOOL  HYGIENE 

be  made  only  after  we  have  accurate  data  on  this 
point.  So  far  as  boys  are  concerned,  we  can  cite  the 
investigation  made  in  Sweden,  which  covers  thousands 
of  pupils.  This  showed  that  only  one-fifth  of  the 
boys  had  extra  lessons  which  required  on  the  average 
from  four  to  five  hours  work  per  week  of  the  pupil. 
Gymnastic  home  exercises  were  included  in  the  cate- 
gory of  extra  work. 

It  is  deplorable  that  such  illuminating  research 
studies  as  are  undertaken  in  Sweden  are  not  made  in 
Austria  or  Germany,  as  well  as  in  other  countries, 
for  it  is,  of  course,  impossible  to  affirm  that  conditions 
everywhere  are  the  same  as  those  that  have  been 
cited.  The  smaller  studies  which  Doernberger  and 
Grassmann  have  made  in  Bavaria,  however,  show  that 
the  children  there  lack  sufficient  time  for  recreation, 
which  they  require  for  sound  development. 

Another  point  which  must  be  brought  out  in  con- 
nection with  taxing  homework  is  the  fact  that  chil- 
dren, especially  those  in  the  higher  schools,  do  not 
really  digest  the  matter  presented  to  them.  In  this 
respect  also  Key's  investigations  afford  insight  into  the 
difficulty.  Patzak  of  Prague  has  likewise  made 
scientific  researches  as  to  the  degree  of  real  under- 
standing which  pupils  have  immediately  after  they 
have  been  taught  in  school,  and  finds  most  discourag- 
ing results.  It  can  not  be  said  too  often  nor  with  too 
much  insistence  that  every  teacher  should  convince 
himself  at  each  step  in  instruction  that  the  subject 
has  been  understood  before  he  proceeds  further. 

But  the  teachers  as  a  whole  can  not  rectify  all  the 
evils    of   homework.     As  already   indicated   a  great 


Till':  HYGIENE  OF  INSTRUCTION      127 

drawback  lies  in  tho  overcrowded  class.  This 
cir(uinistau('o  alone,  where  the  ideals  of  the  teacher 
are  anil)itious,  is  apt  to  lead  to  overpressure.  Another 
difficulty  may  be  the  zealous  supervisor. 

Extra  Work. —  On  the  whole,  extra  lessons  play  but  a 
minor  role  in  homework,  especially  in  the  case  of 
boys.  It  is  tru(^  that  with  girls  the  music  lesson  is  a 
more  important  factor.  Key  found  that  in  the 
secondary  school  of  Sweden  70  percent  of  all  the  girls 
devote  on  an  average  one  hour  daily  to  music.  This 
finding  is  corrol)orated  by  Waetzold  from  the  sta- 
tistics of  Berlin  schools.  On  the  other  hand,  the  work 
which  boys  in  higher  schools  do  to  earn  money  is 
often  exceedingly  taxing,  as  Roller  of  Darmstadt 
(German}')  has  shown  by  the' drastic  examples  which 
he  gives. 

Examinations. — Examinations,  like  homework,  are 
unavoidable,  and  like  the  latter,  may  be  injurious  to 
health.  The  fear  of  examination  is  in  itself  a  form 
of  neurasthenia  which  frequentlj'  appears  in  industri- 
ous, well-prepared  children. 

Above  all,  the  examination  question  should  be  quite 
clear.  If  oral,  the  pupil  should  be  allowed  to  tell 
what  he  knows  without  being  interrupted  by  further 
questioning  which  may  disturb  his  train  of  thought. 
An  exception  to  this  might  be  made  in  mathematics. 
No  child  should  be  ridiculed  for  his  attempts.  The 
pupil  should  not  be  allowed  to  remain  in  ignorance  as 
to  whether  he  has  passed  the  examination  or  not.  The 
object  of  withholding  this  information,  i.e.,  to  stimu- 
late the  child  to  renewed  efforts,  cannot  be  justified. 
If  the  classes  are  too  large  and  the  material  to  be 


128  SCHOOL  HYUliONE 

covered  is  too  extensive  to  permit  of  frequent  tests, 
it  is  not  fair  to  make  the  child  suffer  because  of  this 
lack  in  school  arrangements.  It  is  to  be  recommended 
that,  if  possible  the  examination  should  come  at  the 
beginning  of  the  lesson,  before  n(!\v  matters  are  taken 
up,  so  as  to  relieve  the  mind  of  the  child. 

Written  examinations  often  cause  great  nervous 
strain.  For  this  reason,  it  might  be  well  not  to  let 
the  pupils  know  the  exact  day  of  the  examination,  so 
that  they  will  not  worry  beforehand  and  also  do  less 
efficient  work  at  the  examination. 

The  written  examination  should  be  such  that  the 
average  pupil  can  finish  within  the  designated  time, 
otherwise  the  fear  of  not  having  enough  time  and  the 
strain  of  hurry  will  be  added  to  the  already  existing 
condition  of  excitement  and  anxiety.  The  tax  that 
examinations  make  upon  children  is  recognized  in 
statutory  previsions  made  in  many  countries.  In 
Austria  the  requirement  is  that  no  greater  value  shall 
be  attached  to  written  examinations  than  to  oral. 
The  same  tendencj^  is  expressed  by  the  Prussian  de- 
cree of  1911.  It  is  a  most  objectiona})le  arrangement 
for  teachers,  who  can  not  because  of  the  large  number 
of  pupils  examine  often  enough,  to  depend  upon  the 
final  examination  to  decide  the  child's  standing  in  the 
subject. 

Graduation  Examinations  ("Reifepriifungen").— 
There  is  a  great  deal  of  discussion  nowadays  about  the 
advisability  of  graduation  examinations,  and  opinions 
on  this  score  are  divided.  We  are  interested  here  in 
the  question  of  the  graduation  ^examination  being 
objectionable  on  the  grounds  of  health,  but  we  can  not 


THE  HYGIENE  OF  INSTRUCTION      129 

answer  for  all  countries — even  if  we  had  the  temerity 
to  attempt  it — because  valid  conclusions  can  only  be 
based  on  exact  proof.  It  is  regrettable  that  with  a  few 
exceptions  (Leubuscher  in  Meiningen)  no  attempt  has 
been  made  in  the  various  German  states  for  regular 
physical  examination  of  the  pupils  in  the  ui)])er  classes 
during  the  critical  period.  My  assumption  that  such 
examinations,  together  with  the  period  of  preparation 
which  they  must  entail,  must  be  injurious  to  health, 
is  based  on  the  researches  made  in  other  countries  with 
respect  to  the  examinations  given  to  ascertain  the 
pupils'  knowledge  of  a  wide  extent  of  instruction 
matter.  The  authorities  in  this  field  are  Binet  of 
Paris,  who  examined  the  applicants  for  the  teachers' 
examinations;  Ignatieff'  of  Moscow  who  examined 
pupils  of  a  surveyors  school;  Iwliew  who  made  an 
examination  of  the  girl  students  in  a  Bulgarian  school; 
Kosinzoff  who  examined  the  boys  of  three  of  the  higher 
schools  of  southern  Russia;  and  Bonoff's  work  with 
regard  to  the  graduation  examinations  (Ahiturienten- 
examen)  in  Sofia.  The  investigations  made  by  these 
authorities  were  mostly  with  regard  to  metabolic 
body  changes.  It  can  not,  of  course,  be  asserted  that 
the  conditions  in  the  schools  of  these  countries  are 
identical  with  those  in  central  Europe,  and  no  authori- 
tative stateiiient  can  be  made  without  a  basis  of  exact 
facts.  Conditions  are  different  in  America,  where 
pupils  in  the  upper  grades  of  the  secondary  schools 
have  to  a  certain  degree  the  liberty  of  ehoosing  their 
subjects.  Prussia  has  lightened  the  requirements 
through  the  compensation  system,  and  in  Austria  the 


130  SCHOOL  HYGIENE 

graduation  examination  has  undergone  considerable 
alterations,  which  diminish  its  disadvantages. 

Overwork. — There  can  be  no  doubt  that  classwork, 
homework  and  examinations  are  a  severe  tax  upon  the 
health  of  children  and  that  this  tax  may  readily  ex- 
ceed the  normal  limit.  So  as  not  to  reach  the  danger 
point,  the  child  must  above  all  have  sufficient  sleep, 
for  as  has  been  alreadj^  mentioned,  he  not  only  needs 
to  replace  tissue,  but  he  also  needs  to  grow.  During 
sleep  the  tearing-down  processes  are  diminished  and 
consequently  there  is  opportunity  for  new  growth. 
In  this  connection,  the  valuable  investigations  of  Key 
of  Stockholm  must  again  l)e  cited.  He  found  that  the 
time  of  sleep  for  the  pupils  in  the  high  schools  of 
Sweden  was  one  hour,  and  in  some  classes  much  more 
than  one  hour,  less  than  the  physiological  require- 
ment. This  finding  does  not  apply  to  city  children 
alone,  for  his  investigation  included  13,627  children 
in  all  parts  of  Sweden,  that  is  practicall}'  all  those  at- 
tending the  higher  schools.  The  statistics  of  these 
eleven-  to  nineteen-year-old  pu])ils  show  that  the 
period  of  sleep  is  progressively  less  the  higher  the 
grade  a  pupil  occupies  for  his  age.  Th(>  explanation 
for  this  loss  of  sleep  can  not  be  sought  in  the  home;  the 
greater  demand  of  the  school  must  be  held  responsible. 
On  this  point,  Schmid-Monnard  has  furnished  ad- 
mirable data  in  an  investigation  made  in  Halle  (Ger- 
many). By  tabulating  the  period  of  sleep  for  the  ele- 
mentary school  children  of  that  city  and  comparing  it 
with  the  sleeping  time  of  children  of  the  same  age  in  the 
higher  schools,  h(>  found  a  curtailment  among  ]iupils 
attending  the  latter.     Leubuscher  instances  the  frc- 


THIO  HYGIENE  OF  INSTRUCTION      131 

quoiioy  and  seriousness  of  nervous  disturbances  in  the 
U])})er  fi;ia(les  of  hifijher  schools  as  due  to  mental  strain. 
Clilopin  of  St.  Petersburj^  bases  similar  conchisions 
on  an  investigation  of  104,690  pupils  in  the  secondary 
schools  of  entire  Russia. 

Out  of  the  mass  of  statistics  which  Key  has  given 
us  and  which  is  so  comprehensive  as  to  make  his  con- 
clusions of  real  value,  we  wish  to  make  application  of 
one  fact — the  relation  between  sickness  and  develop- 
ment. That  the  increase  in  body  weight  is  not  a  con- 
stant one  for  all  ages  is  a  well-known  fact,  but  Key  has 
also  demonstrated  a  decided  increase  in  sickliness 
during  the  years  of  school  life,  and  he  finds  that  this 
sickliness  curve  has  a  pronounced  relation  to  the 
weight  curve.  This  fact  is  significant  for  the  school 
or,  more  correctly  stated,  it  ought  to  be  significant. 
If,  for  instance,  as  was  the  case  in  Sweden,  it  is  found 
that  there  is  a  decided  increase  of  sickliness  or  a  weak 
state  of  health  at  a  certain  age,  and  a  corresponding 
decrease  in  growth,  that  period  should  be  regarded 
as  one  of  lessened  resistance,  and  care  should  be  taken 
to  ward  off  all  harmful  influences.  There  are,  how- 
ever, no  cases  on  record  where  a  curriculum  has  been 
modified  to  meet  such  conditions;  not  even  an  attempt 
has  been  made  in  other  countries  to  verify  Key's 
findings.  It  must  be  emphasized  that  the  school  has 
a  liigher  function  to  perform  than  merely  to  give  in- 
struction, and  that  improvement  of  existing  conditions 
must  be  based  not  on  theory  but  on  a  firm  foundation 
of  observed  and  verified  facts. 

Punishments. — Punishment  for  wrongdoing  can 
never  be  quite  eliminated  from  the  school,  and  the  only 


132  SCHOOL  HYGIENE 

question  that  remains  is,  what  forms  of  punishment 
are  least  ol^jectionable,  hygienic-ally  considered? 
We  must  consider  four  types — censure,  punishment 
work,  depriving  the  child  of  freedom,  and  corporal 
punishment.  With  regard  to  the  whole  subject  of 
punishments  the  medical  inspector  may  be  of  great 
help,  for,  as  is  frequently  the  case,  the  cause  of  mis- 
takes may  lie  in  certain  pathological  conditions  of  the 
eyes,  such  as  farsightedness,  astigmatism,  strabismus, 
rather  than  in  inattention.  The  same  may  be  said 
of  defects  of  hearing,  especially  if  the  difficulty  is 
not  constant  but  intermittent.  Some  children  void 
urine  involuntarily,  others  can  not  control  involun- 
tary twitchings  of  the  muscles.  Mistakes  are  also  fre- 
quently made  in  judging  the  mentally  defective. 
Certainly  no  humane  teacher  would  desire  to  punish 
a  child  who  because  of  physical  or  mental  disabihties 
is  not  responsible  for  his  mistakes. 

The  work  assigned  as  punishment  should  not  be 
such  that  the  child  is  deprived  of  necessary  recrea- 
tion, and  when  he  does  remain  in  school  during  play 
time  it  should  be  under  the  supervision  of  a  teacher, 
for  it  has  been  found  that  unsupervised  children  fre- 
quently fall  into  bad  sexual  habits.  The  brief  recess 
periods  should  never  be  forfeited.  To  stand  for  a 
long  time  is  extremely  fatiguing,  and  little  children 
should  not  be  punished  in  this  way  for  longer  than 
ten  minutes;  the  punishment  of  standing  through  the 
whole  period  of  the  lesson  is  also  too  severe  for  larger 
children.  It  is  dangerous  to  put  children  in  the  cold 
halls  in  winter,  while  that  refined  kind  of  horror  of 
lying    flat    on    a   hard   floor   or  standing   with   arms 


TUK  HYCUENE  OF  INSTRUCTION      133 

cxtt'iuUHl     hrloiigs     neither    in    (lie    school    nor    the 
homo. 

Corporal  Punishment. — The  most  difficult  question 
arises  with  reference  to  corporal  punishment.  It 
can  not  easily  be  dispensed  with  altogether,  where  it 
has  once  been  in  practice,  because  of  the  supposed 
disastrous  effect  upon  discipline;  badly  brought  up  and 
unruly  cliikiren  will  innnediately  assume  an  aggres- 
sive attitude.  But  notwithstanding  these  difficulties 
which  are  those  of  transition,  the  tendency  should  be 
toward  doing  away  with  whipping  altogether.  Not 
to  mention  the  injury  to  the  dignity  of  the  child, 
facts  can  be  cited  from  countries  where  corporal 
punishment  is  still  in  use,  which  leave  no  doubt  what- 
soever that  this  type  of  punishment  is  responsible 
for  some  horrible  malpractices,  the  majority  of  which 
never  come  before  the  public.  It  may  happen  that 
even  mild  whippings  lead  to  serious  results  and  death, 
or  whipping  may  excite  sexual  feeling  and  attract 
teachers  with  sadistic  tendencies,  as  for  instance  in 
the  sad  case  of  Dippold.  It  is  possible  to  give  a 
long  list  of  the  restrictions  which  prevail  in  countries 
where  corporal  punishment  still  persists,  for  instance, 
that  the  headmaster  shall  be  responsible,  and  that  the 
school  physician  and  the  school, director  must  be  con- 
sulted, also  that  girls  shall  be  spared,  and  that  no 
children  beyond  a  certain  age  shall  be  punished.  All 
these  provisions  are  made  for  the  purpose  of  limiting 
corporal  punishment  and  averting  the  possibility  of 
the  child  being  whipped  in  anger.  Another  indication 
of  the  tendency  to  do  away  with  corporal  punishment 
is  the  preference  shown  for  teachers  who  can  achieve 


134  SCHOOL  HYGIENE 

satisfactory  pedagogical  results  with  the  minimum 
number  of  whippings.  In  Finland,  for  instance, 
while  corporal  punishment  in  the  school  is  not  pro- 
hibited, it  is  never  practised  because  puljlic  opinion 
is  against  it.  In  Belgium,  France,  Hessen  (Germany), 
Japan,  Austria,  some  cantons  of  Switzerland  and  most 
of  the  United  States  it  is  prohibited.  It  can  readily 
be  seen  that  in  countries  where  whipping  still  prevails, 
teachers  are  loath  to  part  with  it,  especially  in  classes 
of  from  eighty  to  one  hundred  unruly  boys.  In  such 
a  case  a  tired,  irritated  teacher  can  hardly  be  blamed 
for  resorting  to  physical  force,  but  the  question  of  the 
wisdom  of  such  acts — it  may  be  that  the  wrong  child 
is  whipped — still  remains  open,  and  it  is  very  doubt- 
ful if  children  are  morally  improved  thereby.  Very 
likely,  if  the  teacher  had  only  half  tlic  number  of 
pupils,  that  is  forty,  he  would  be  very  ready  to 
dispense  with  corporal  punishment.  It  is  undoubt- 
edly a  fact  that  many  whippings  can  be  attributed 
to  just  such  circumstances  as  those  cited  above. 

Where  corporal  punishment  is  practised,  the  follow- 
ing points  should  be  observed.  The  teacher  should 
not  box  or  pull  the  ears  of  the  pupil;  he  must  not  hit 
the  child  on  the  head  or  neck,  nor  use  his  hand,  a 
book,  a  ruler  or  a  heavy  stick;  he  must  not  pull  or 
push  the  child  about,  or  punish  him  at  his,  the  child's, 
desk.  To  spank  the  child  on  that  part  of  his  anatomy 
which  seems  best  able  to  bear  this  punishment  may 
excite  sexual  feeling.  Many  aspects  of  the  subject 
need  to  be  considered,  and  even  when  corporal  punish- 
ment is  hedged  about  with  restrictions  it  is  a  source  of 
distress  to  all  concerned. 


THE  HYGIENE  OF  INSTliUCTION      135 

Afi;ain,  in  tho  public  schools  of  large  cities  we  find 
children  who  have  become  vicious  and  unruly  through 
neglect  at  home.  Such  need  first  of  all  pity,  rather 
than  punishment.  It  is  probable  that  the  practice 
of  whipping  in  school  would  be  greatly  lessened  if 
such  unruly  children  could  be  segregated  in  special 
schools  with  small  classes — which  might  obviate  the 
necessity  of  later  sending  them  as  delinquents  to 
reformatories.  It  is,  of  course,  better  still  to  prevent 
such  a  condition  of  affairs  by  the  enactment  of 
legislation  concerning  the  duties  of  parents  and  by 
such  adequate  measures  as  institutions  for  ill-treated 
children,  but  the  time  is  not  yet  ripe  nor  are  the  means 
at  hand  for  the  realization  of  these  ideals. 

Pupils  in  secondary  schools  should  not  be  subject  to 
corporal  punishment.  The  dishonor  attending  cor- 
rection is  felt  very  keenly  during  these  years,  especially 
at  the  beginning  of  puberty,  and  it  may  be  disastrous. 
Even  threats  of  corporal  punishment  have  been  known 
to  have  had  bad  effects.  Lentz  cites  the  case  of  a  pupil 
who  committed  suicide  because  he  was  to  be  whipped. 

School  Suicides. — It  is  probable  that  while  the  im- 
mediate cause  of  these  school  suicides  may  be  a  feeling 
of  injured  pride,  fear  of  punishment,  dread  of  ex- 
minations,  or  unhappy  love,  the  underlying  cause  is 
pathological,  and  the  tendency  may  be  an  inherited 
one.  The  suicides  of  school  children,  especially  of 
boys  in  high  schools,  are  far  too  frequent,  as  Eulenberg 
has  shown  with  regard  to  the  schools  of  Prussia  and 
Chlopin  for  those  of  Russia.  It  behooves  the  school 
to  realize  this  situation  and  to  do  everything  in  its 
.power  to  avoid  such  disasters. 


136  SCHOOL  HYGIENE 

Other  Punishments. — To  ask  a  child  to  be  the 
bearer  of  a  note  reporting  his  deUnquencies  to  the 
parents  or  to  bring  a  message  of  reproof,  means  simply 
to  lead  him  into  temptation.  The  psychic  influence 
of  this  upon  a  sensitive  child  whose  parents  are 
severe  may  affect  his  health  unfavorably,  not  to  m(>ii- 
tion  the  moral  danger  of  lying  and  subterfuge. 

The  kind  of  punishment  which  might  really  be 
effectual  is  to  deprive  the  child  of  some  pleasure — 
praise,  play,  swimming,  etc.,  although  at  present  the 
school  offers  small  opportunity  in  this  direction,  for 
school  pleasures  are  few.  The  prospect  of  being 
deprived  of  the  shower  bath  has  been  found  to  be  an 
effective  pedagogical  measure  in  the  schools  in  Munich, 
and  analogous  cases  are  reported  from  English  schools 
when  children  are  not  permitted  to  participate  in  the 
sports  of  their  companions. 

Vacations. — That  vacations  are  beneficial  to  health 
is  a  well-known  fact,  though  we  lack  scientific  in- 
formation as  to  the  desirable  length  and  distribution 
of  vacations  in  the  school  year.  The  findings  of 
investigators  in  Denmark,  Germany,  and  Scandinavia 
are  in  general  accord,  i.e.,  that  the  children's  gain  in 
weight  during  these  free  periods  is  proportionately 
greater  than  during  other  times,  although  in  connection 
with  this  statement  it  must  be  said  that  we  do  not  yet 
know  what  part  seasonal  changes  play  in  the  growth  of 
children  at  various  ages,  nor  do  we  know  for  large 
numbers  of  children  the  comparative  increase  in 
weight  by  months  o  f  those  in  school  and  those  who  are 
free.     To  solve  the  last-mentioned  problem,  investi- 


Till-:  IIYG1ENJ<:  OF  INSTRUCTION      137 

giitions  need  to  be  conducted  in  a  country  where  great 
numbers  of  children  are  still  out  of  sc^hool. 

Summer  Vacation.— That  a  long  summer  vacation 
is  beneficial  from  the  pedagogical  as  well  as  from  all 
other  standpoints  is  shown  by  an  example  from  Russia. 
In  that  country  during  the  cholera  epidemic  of  1891, 
the  summer  vacation  was  lengthened  by  two  weeks  for 
37    boarding   schools.     The    results   with   respect   to 
examinations  and  general  attainments  for  the  follow- 
ing school  year  were  found  to  be  so  satisfactory  that 
it  was  resolved  thereafter  to  adopt  the  longer  vacation. 
This  instance  likewise  illustrates  the  value  of  the  experi- 
mental  method    in   education.      In   advocating   the 
experimental  method  we  do  not,  however,  mean  to  say 
that  every  school  should  try  a  longer  vacation  one  year 
and  a  shorter  one  the  next;  this  would  be  a  contradic- 
tion of  the  word  "experiment."     If,  on  the  other  hand, 
a  large  number  of  pupils,  at  least  10,000,  in  a  selected 
number  of  schools  in  both  city  and   country,  were 
studied  with  respect  to  the  effects  of  a  lengthened 
vacation    upon    psychic    development,    condition    of 
health,  and  school  attainments,  in  comparison  with  a 
like  number  of  children  whose  free  period  remained 
unchanged,  really  valuable  data  might  be  obtained. 
The  best  time  for  the  summer  vacation   naturally 
varies  with  climatic  conditions.     In  the  northern  hem- 
isphere the  months  of  July  and  August  are  preferable 
because  of  the  high  temperature  and  also  l)ecause  the 
long  days  of  those  months  permit  the  children  to  be 
out-of-doors  the  maximum  number  of  hours.     Schuy- 
ten  of  Antwerp,  in  studying  over  600  school  children 
from  seven  to  fourteen  years  of  age,  with  respect  to 


138  SCHOOL  HYGIENE 

their  spontaneous  attention  to  reading  in  relation  to 
varying  outdoor  temperatures,  found  the  lowest  per- 
centages during  July  (August  and  September  were 
vacation  months  and  no  observations  were  taken); 
he  found  that  the  attention  curve  rises  from  October 
to  Januarj^  and  then  descends  till  July.  The  long 
vacation  should  at  all  events  come  at  the  end  of  the 
school  year.  When  this  is  not  the  case,  the  vacation 
will  not  be  of  the  greatest  benefit  because  of  the 
anxiety  which  some  children  will  feel  about  their 
work. 

Mid-term  Vacations. — In  addition  to  the  summer 
vacation,  a  number  of  mid-term  intervals  must  be 
considered.  The  most  desirable  time  would  seem  to 
be  at  the  end  of  December  and  beginning  of  January, 
and  the  latter  part  of  March  or  early  in  April.  It 
is  better  not  to  regulate  the  vacation  according  to  the 
date  of  Easter  which  changes  from  year  to  year,  and  to 
allow  only  the  church  holidays  at  Easter.  The  period 
from  March  to  April  is  the  time  of  highest  morbidity 
in  the  year,  and  hence  peculiarly  significant  for  a  va- 
cation, so  that  unfavorable  influences  may  be  miti- 
gated as  much  as  possible. 

This  statement  is  based  on  statistical  data  obtained 
from  the  five  children's  hospitals  in  Vienna  and  covers 
an  analysis  of  the  records  of  40,000  children  of  all  ages 
up  to  fourteen  years  (1898  to  1904).  A  rising  mor- 
bidity from  the  opening  of  school  in  September  to  the 
end  of  the  calendar  year  was  observed,  with  a  high 
point  in  March  and  a  maximal  rise  in  April.  In  the 
figures  of  Zirngast,  of  Miihrisch-Schonberg  (Austria), 
who  studied  the  absence  records  of  eleven  to  fifteen- 


THE  HYGIENE  OF  INSTRUCTION      139 

3'('ar-ol{l  cliilclrcn  in  the  four  lowest  grades  of  the  liighcr 
schools  for  ii  period  of  twelve  years,  there  is  a  steady 
ascent  in  the  curve  from  December  to  January,  and 
the  greatest  rise  in  March.  Lobsien  found  that  in 
Kiel  (Germany)  where  the  npw  school  year  b(?gins  in 
April,  the  greatest  number  of  absences  also  occurred 
in  March;  there  was  a  decided  drop  in  the  absences 
for  April. 

The  great  significance  of  rest  on  the  seventh  day  is 
hallowed  by  religious  custom.  Sunday  should  not 
only  be  a  day  of  freedom  from  school,  but  the  demands 
of  the  week  should  be  so  regulated  that  it  shall  not  be 
necessary  to  do  any  home  work  on  that  day.  This 
may  also  be  said  of  vacations.  During  the  summer 
especially,  children  should  not  be  required  to  do  any 
school  work,  even  that  disguised  in  the  form  of  desig- 
nated reading.  Such  tasks  spoil  the  vacation  for 
many  children,  and  moreover  small  educational  benefit 
is  derived  from  this  pra(!tice,  for  the  children  will 
usually  leave  the  work  until  the  last  minute  before 
school.  Much  has  been  forgotten  during  the  vacation, 
and  it  is  not  fair  to  expect  that  at  the  opening  of  school 
the  children  shall  be  as  familiar  with  the  subject  as 
they  were  at  the  close  of  school.  The  tasks  assigned 
for  the  Christmas  and  spring  vacations  should  not  ex- 
ceed the  demands  ordinarih^  made  for  the  next  day. 

Suspension  of  School  on  Warm  Days. — Suspen- 
sion of  school  during  very  warm  afternoons  has  become 
a  general  practice  in  Europe,  since  it  Avas  officially 
recognized  in  Wiirttemberg  (Germany)  in  1870;  the 
custom  existed  in  Dresden  and  Leipsic  even  in  the 
middle  of  the  century.     No  specific  temperature   of 


140  SCHOOL  HYGIENE 

excessive  heat  can  ])e  given,  for  much  depends  upon 
local  conditions.  Thus  in  a  small  town  with  only 
twenty  pupils  in  a  room  which  opens  to  the  east,  the 
school  work  may  proceed  with  comfort,  even  though 
the  day  be  hot,  while  on  the  same  day,  conditions 
would  be  unbearable  in  a  city  school  with  sixty  pupils 
to  a  class  room  opening  southward  on  a  street. 

Vacation  Colonies  or  Camps. — The  vacation  colo- 
nies are  a  form  of  school  welfare  work  most  worthy 
of  encouragement.  This  work  was  started  in  Copen- 
hagen in  1854  for  poor  children  in  need  of  fresh 
air,  who  were  taken  to  families  in  the  country;  but, 
of  the  vacation  colony  in  its  modern  sense,  Bion  of 
Zurich  is  the  originator.  He  started  in  1876  to  take 
groups  of  city  children  in  charge  of  their  instructors 
out  to  the  country.  For  small  camps,  the  family  plan 
of  living  is  very  desirable.  Before  starting  out,  the 
children  should  be  examined  by  a  physician,  weighed, 
and  then  re-w^eighed  at  definite  intervals  during  their 
stay  at  the  camp,  so  that  those  who  show  no  gain  may 
be  especially  cared  for.  Such  deficient  children  should 
not  be  permitted  to  take  part  in  long  tramps;  they 
should  be  allowed  to  remain  only  a  few  minutes  in  the 
water,  should  rest  after  dinner  or  be  sent  to  bed 
earlier  than  the  others.  The  regime  at  the  camp 
should  include  a  good  breakfast  eaten  after  some 
exercise,  a  good  dinner  in  the  early  hours  of  the 
afternoon,  and  an  early,  light  supper  with  soup  and 
milk  dishes,  but  no  meat. 

The  finest  vacation  camj)  in  Europe  is  on  the  shores 
of  the  beautiful  Lake  Abersee,  where  500  Vienna 
boys,  eleven  to  twenty  years  of  age,  of  the  Latin  and 


THE  HYGIJONE  OF  INSTKUCTION      141 

modern  schools,  have  camped  smce  1911  during  their 
summer  vacations.  The  colony  covers  an  area  of 
400,000  square  meters  and  is  open  from  the  middle 
of  July  to  the  middle  of  September.  Any  friend  of 
youth  who  visits  the  romantic  Salzkammergut  should 
pay  a  visit  there. 

Excursions  in  Vacation. — Vacation  picnics,  vacation 
sports,  and  holiday  trips,  are  admirable  institutions 
for  city  children.  It  need  hardly  be  said  that  on  these 
occasions  and  also  in  the  vacation  camps,  none  of  the 
children,  not  even  the  older  ones,  should  be  permitted 
to  partake  of  alcoholic  beverages.  Milk  is  a  suitable 
drink.  If  the  drinking  water  is  not  known  to  be 
absolutely  pure,  it  should  be  boiled  and  a  little  lemon 
juice  or  tea  added.  In  this  category  of  vacation  activ- 
ities also  come  the  extensive  walking  tours  of  children 
accompanied  by  their  teachers. 

Recreation  Day  Camps  and  Open-air  Schools. — The 
recreation  day  camps  were  first  established  near 
Charlottenburg  in  1902  and  arose  out  of  the  Red  Cross 
recreation  center  work  started  in  1900.  They  have 
now  spread  over  the  entire  world,  and  have  led  to  the 
establishment  of  recreation  piers,  roof  playgrounds, 
etc.  These  day  camps  are  usually  located  in  a  re- 
stricted wood  near  the  city  and  on  a  car  line;  on  the 
grounds  are  a  number  of  huts  (barracks).  The 
children  are  taken  to  the  camps  in  the  morning  and 
return  to  the  city  at  night.  In  the  forest  school 
{Waldschule)  of  Charlottenl)urg,  near  BerUn,  the  chil- 
dren have  received  regular  instruction  since  1905. 
Open-air  schools  are  now  a  growing  educational  fea- 
ture in  America,  Germany,  England  and  Austria. 


142  SCHOOL  HYGIENE 

5.  Boarding  Schools 

Life  in  a  boarding  school  offers  many  health  advan- 
tages, especialh'  to  pupils  of  the  higher  schools  in  the 
large  cities,  but  also  some  grave  disadvantages.  The 
advantages  are  that  there  is  a  better  division  and 
use  of  the  pupil's  time  than  at  home,  physical  exer- 
cise is  on  a  better  basis,  and  the  accessibility  of  physi- 
cians who  make  regular  examinations  of  the  pupils' 
eyes  and  teeth,  keeps  them  in  better  condition.  These 
advantages  apply  only  to  good  boarding  schools. 
The  disadvantages,  on  the  other  hand,  are  the  rapid 
spread  of  infectious  diseases  and  sexual  irregularities. 
The  ideal  arrangement  for  pupils  of  the  higher 
schools  would  be  to  combine  the  advantages  of  the 
home  with  those  of  the  school.  That  is,  if  the  child 
could  go  in  the  morning  to  a  good  school,  remain  there 
for  the  entire  day,  and  return  to  the  home  at  night, 
the  chsadvantages  of  the  boarding  school  would  be 
obviated,  while  the  advantages  remain.  In  this 
way,  the  home  influence  would  not  be  lost.  Groups 
of  small  lodging  houses,  not  accommodating  more 
than  twenty  pupils  and  each  house  in  charge  of  a 
married  instructor,  would  be  most  desirable  for  board- 
ing schools.  The  relationships  thus  established 
would  be  those  of  a  family  with  many  children, 
and  the  pupils  would  escape  the  disadvantages  of 
overcrowding. 

AVhat  has  been  said  about  the  construction  of  school 
buildings  applies  in  general  also  to  boarding  schools. 
In  addition,  of  course,  certain  sections  must  be  set 
aside  for  more  personal  use,  for  a  kitchen,  dining-room, 


THE  HYGIKNE  OE  lNS'rJ{UC:Tl()N       143 

study  rooms,  hospital  accommodations,  and  sleeping 
quarters.  The  latter  offer  the  greatest  difficulty,  for 
while  with  small  separate  bedrooms  the  possibilitj^  of 
conversation  after  retiring  is  avoided,  they  make  super- 
vision of  the  individual  child  more  difficult.  Ventila- 
tion in  small  rooms  is  also  apt  to  be  deficient,  and  the 
difficulty  of  cleaning  presents  itself.  Conunon  dor- 
mitories can  be  more  readily  supervised,  and  are 
easier  to  ventilate  and  clean,  but  in  them  the  pupils' 
freedom  as  to  intercourse  is  less  restricted.  An 
adjustable  screen  l)y  the  side  of  each  bed  with  a 
curtain  which  can  be  drawn  when  the  pupil  is  dressing, 
undressing,  or  washing,  protects  modesty.  The  beds 
should  be  at  least  an  arm's  length  apart.  Alcoholic 
drinks  should  be  absolutely  excluded  from  boarding 
schools. 

Open  Air  Boarding  Schools. — Special  reference 
must  be  made  to  the  open  air  boarding  schools  in  the 
country.  The  first  of  this  type,  called  "The  New 
School,"  was  started  by  Reddie  at  Abbotsholme, 
Derbyshire,  in  1889  for  boys.  In  Germany  the  first 
appeared  in  1898;  later  similar  schools  were  started  in 
Austria  and  Switzerland,  and  now  w^e  have  such 
institutes  for  girls  as  well.  The  chief  hygienic  char- 
acteristics of  these  schools  are — simple,  plain  food 
(alcohol  being  absolutely  excluded),  regular  bathing, 
sports,  and  the  alternation  of  mental  with  physical 
work.  The  latter  includes  working  in  a  garden,  field, 
and  workshop.  To  harden  the  physique  of  the  pupils 
they  sleep  frequently  in  the  open  air.  Intellectual 
work  is  restricted  to  the  morning  hours.  The  educa- 
tional ideal  of  these  schools  is  to  awaken  self-reliance 


144  SC'HOUJ.  IIYCIIKXE 

and  to  establish  closer  companionships  between  teacher 
and  pupils.  It  has  been  reported  that  in  the  zealous 
application  of  their  rules,  in  sleeping  out  of  doors  even 
in  very  cold  weather,  in  exposing  the  limbs  of  the 
children  to  the  cold,  these  schools  have  gone  too  far; 
but  it  can  not  be  denied  that  the  training  which  chil- 
dren receive  in  institutions  of  this  type  is  far  superior 
to  ordinary  school  training,  and  not  only  ^\ath  respect 
to  physical  health.  Unfortunately,  such  schools  can 
be  available  to  only  a  small  proportion  of  the  school 
population. 


Ill 

INSTRUCTION  IN  HYGIENE 

It  is  clear  from  the  foregoing  discussions  that  a 
systematic  and  incessant  campaign  of  school  hygiene 
cannot  be  carried  out  if  the  teacher  within  the  school 
is  not  informed  on  these  subjects  or  does  not  know 
how  to  put  these  ideals  into  practice.     The  school 
physician,  of  whom  mention  will  be  made  later,  can  not 
replace  the  teacher  in  routine  matters  of  hygiene;  the 
former  visits  the  school  only  at  definite  times,  while 
the  teacher's  influence  is  continuous.     Hence  it  is 
absolutely  necessary  for  the  teacher  to   possess  at 
least  some  specific  knowledge  of  school  hygiene.     It  is 
the  duty  of  the  teaching  profession  to  call  attention 
to  hygiene  requirements,  so  that  blunders  will  be  less 
frequent  when  new  school  buildings  are  erected,  or 
old  ones  are  rebuilt,  but  a  wider  and  more  fertile  field 
for  the  propagation  of  hygiene  ideals  is  the  classroom 
where  a  consistent  regard  for  these  ideals  is  demon- 
strated daily.     Another  avenue  for  the  furtherance  of 
school  hygiene  lies  in  scientific  research  work  for  those 
teachers  who  are  equipped  in  this  direction  and  who 
can  devote  sufficient  time  to  the  work.     The  hygiene 
of  instruction  especially  offers  numerous  problems  for 
investigation.     Of  the  greatest  individual  and  social 
significance  is  the  instruction  of  the  children  in  matters 
of  hygiene.     Talks  with  parents  concerning  the  rearing 

145 


146  SCHOOL  HYGIENE 

of  children,  and  discussion  of  unhygienic  conditions 
in  the  community,  are  other  effectual  means.  Finally, 
a  not  to  be  despised  advantage  of  this  knowledge  is 
the  benefit  which  it  may  be  to  the  teacher  himself,  in 
helping  him  to  guard  his  own  health  in  an  arduous 
profession. 

Hygiene  in  Training  Schools. — It  would  be  espe- 
cially useful  if  matters  of  school  hygiene  were  included 
in  the  last  year's  curriculum  of  the  training  school, 
so  that  the  young  teacher  may  have  not  only  a  theo- 
retical, but  also  a  thoroughly  practical  knowledge.  It 
would  be  of  still  greater  advantage  if  the  training 
school  could  offer  a  variety  of  conditions,  in  order  that 
the  teacher  may  be  instructed  how  to  meet  the  situa- 
tion with  regard  to  varied  school  conditions,  as  found 
in  both  city  and  country. 

It  is  also  most  desirable  for  the  teacher  to  have  suffi- 
cient medical  knowledge  to  recognize  the  first  signs 
of  disease,  particularly  the  contagious  diseases  of 
childhood,  so  that  in  suspicious  cases,  when  a  child 
complains  of  feeling  ill,  or  has  a  sore  throat,  difficulty 
in  sw\allowing,  headache,  coughs  continually  or  sneezes 
without  mucous  secretion,  or  has  fever,  he  can  be 
sent  home  at  once  for  medical  examination.  In  lo- 
calities where  many  cases  of  cholera  or  typhoid  fever 
have  occurred,  a  knowledge  of  first  sj-mptoms  and 
what  to  do  when  they  appear,  may  help  to  prevent 
epidemics. 

The  most  suitable  person  to  impart  instruction 
in  personal  and  school  hygiene  in  the  training  school 
is  undou})tedly  a  well  equipped  physician — a  demand 
which  is  more  easily   made  than  fulfilled,  for  there 


INSTRUCTION  IN  HYGIENE  147 

seems  to  be  small  desire  on  the  part  of  physicians  to 
prepare  tlieniselves  carefully  in  the  way  necessary 
to  fill  such  a  post;  hence  the  work  must  often  be  done 
by  teachers.  If  the  position  of  the  school  physician 
at  the  hij>;her  schools  were  an  official  one,  i.e.,  if  in 
addition  the  physician  were  the  physical  director  in 
charge  of  the  physical  training  of  the  school,  or  if 
this  post  should  not  offer  enough  occupation,  perhaps 
also  the  natural  history  instructor,  the  difficulty  might 
be  obviated  and  the  physician  would  be  brought  into 
closer  contact  with  the  school.  A  paragon  institution 
is  the  Department  of  Hygiene  in  the  College  of  the 
City  of  New  York,  where  Storey  is  doing  excellent 
work  in  medical  inspection,  physical  education,  and 
instruction  in  hygiene. 

Teachers  and  physicians  of  the  old  order  who  have 
had  no  scientific  training  in  hygiene,  are  not  as  a  rule 
favorably  inclined  toward  the  "innovations"  of 
hygiene.  If,  therefore,  a  young  teacher  who  is  well 
prepared  on  these  subjects  takes  up  his  work  with 
great  enthusiasm  in  a  school  where  the  principal  and 
most  of  the  teachers  belong  to  the  old  regime,  he  will 
seriously  jeopardize  his  interests  if  he  tries  to  intro- 
duce reforms  too  quickly.  It  is  well  for  him  to  ])e 
guarded  in  his  actions,  to  feel  his  way,  gaining  first 
the  trust  and  confidence  of  a  number  of  his  co-workers 
before  he  attempts  to  put  new  principles  into  effect. 
On  the  other  hand,  it  goes  without  saying  that  the 
teaching  profession  also  includes  man 3^  who  have  grown 
gray  in  the  service  and  who  keenly  welcome  the  new; 
in  general,  it  can  be  said  that  the  teaching  profession 
is  distinguished  by  an  eagerness  to  widen  its  fields  of 


148  SCHOOL  HYGIENE 

knowledge.  The  reading  of  literature  on  school 
hygiene  and  the  attendance  at  lectures  on  the  subject 
demonstrate  the  extent  of  this  open-mindedness,  and 
the  older  teacher  possesses  this  great  advantage  over 
the  young  instructor  just  out  of  the  training  school — 
he  is  in  a  position  to  correlate  the  theoretical  and  new 
with  his  personal  observation  and  ripe  experience. 

Hygiene  in  Elementary  Schools. — The  school  offers 
a  multitude  of  opportunities  for  the  practical  demon- 
stration of  hygienic  living;  the  daily  conduct  of  the 
teacher  in  this  respect  as  in  others  should  serve  as  a 
model  to  the  children.  Instruction  in  personal  hygiene 
should  be  a  recognized  school  subject.  Adefinite  num- 
ber of  hours  during  the  year  should  l)e  devoted  to  teach- 
ing the  essentials  of  right  living  as  it  concerns  food, 
work,  care  of  the  body  in  all  its  parts,  safeguarding  it 
against  contagion,  etc.  This  instruction  may  be  sup- 
plemented by  definitely  planned  and  suitable  reading. 
Little  books  of  health  rules,  of  which  the  first  to  be 
published  in  German}-  was  put  forth  by  the  teachers' 
association  of  Berlin,  and  of  w^iich  man}'  different 
kinds  can  now  be  obtained,  are  useful  in  helping  the 
children  to  gain  a  clear  idea  of  fundamental  principles. 
Placards  with  maxims  in  verse  form  which  appeal  to 
the  eye  are  useful  for  the  schoolroom;  the  children 
read  and  remember  the  hygienic  lessons  which  they 
convey,  especially  if  attention  is  drawn  to  the  motto 
as  occasion  may  demand.  The  older  folklore  may  be 
lacking  in  proverbs  which  express  the  ideals  of  the 
modern  day,  but  it  is  not  difficult  to  meet  the  need  by 
creating  new  maxims.  Such  simple  rhymes  as  the 
following  may  be  effective : 


INSTRUCTION  IN  HYGIENE  149 

When  before  the  board  we  sit 
Only  cleanly  hands  are  fit.* 

The"  oldest  instance  of  instruction  in  hygiene  in 
pubUc  schools  is  furnished  by  Eichstadt  (Germany) 
which  included  this  provision  in  the  school  regulations 

of  1785. 

Hygiene  in  High  Schools.— What  has  been  said  up 
to  this  point  about  instruction  in  hygiene  applies  par- 
ticularly to  the  elementary  school,  but  the  secondary 
school  also  has  its  own  problem  in  this  respect.  In  the 
first  place,  it  is  essential  for  the  teacher  in  the  sec- 
ondary school  to  be  thoroughly  well  equipped  in 
hygiene.  His  schoolroom  duties  are  largely  identical 
with  those  of  the  elementary  school  teacher,  but  of 
him  special  discretion  is  demanded  because  of  the 
intensity  and  quantity  of  work  required  of  pupils 
in  the  higher  institutions. 

In  high  schools  we  find  those  who  desire  to  qualify 
for  teaching  positions.  Hence  it  is  desirable,  as  is 
customary  in  Austria  and  in  some  parts'of  Germany, 
to  provide  special  lectures  in  hygiene  for  high  school 
students.  The  interest  shown  among  high  school 
teachers  has  on  the  whole  been  more  lax  than  in  the 
elementary  school,  and  yet  the  long,  hard  tasks  of 
the  higher  school,  which  fall  upon  the  pupil  during 
the  pubescent  period,  make  it  imperative  for  the 
teacher  never  to  lose  sight  of  this  larger  viewpoint  of 
health.  Matters  of  health  must  be  taken  seriously. 
During  the  high  school  age,  as  well  as  earlier  in  their 
school    career,    children   need   special   instruction   in 

*  Vor  dem  Essen  merk'  die  RpkcI: 
Wasch'  die  HJindo,  putz'  die  Nagel. 


150  SCHOOL  HYGIENE 

hygiene.  Such  instruction  is  particularly  significant 
for  the  high  school,  not  only  because  the  importance 
of  community  hygiene  is  then  beginning  to  be  appre- 
ciated, but  Ijecause  the  pupils  of  the  higher  schools 
will  eventuall}^  compose  the  greater  part  of  the  class 
which  will  be  instrumental  in  supporting  the  hygienic 
ideals  of  the  community.  In  view  of  the  significance 
of  the  subject,  its  introduction  into  the  high  school 
curriculum  in  Europe  has  frequently  been  ^agitated; 
but  it  is  clear  that  where  it  does  not  replace  another 
subject  which  is  dropped,  the  extra  work  will 
only  mean  an  additional  burden  upon  the  pupil 
—an  unhygienic  i^rocedure.  Therefore,  for  the  pres- 
ent we  must  content  ourselves  by  stimulating  the 
interest  of  high  school  teachers,  to  the  end  that  matters 
of  hygiene  may  be  embodied  in  the  books  and  dis- 
cussions on  various  other  subjects.  The  wise  teacher 
can  then  make  incidental  mention  of  hygienic  points 
as  opportunity  may  offer.  Or,  it  may  be  possible  for 
the  upper  classes  to  curtail  other  courses,  for  instance 
those  in  nature  study,  and  substitute  hygiene,  pro- 
ceeding gradually  with  a  view  to  training  future 
teachers.  When  the  instructor  in  hygiene  is  a  physi- 
cian, he  should  be  thoroughly  trained  in  school 
hygiene. 

Of  the  various  subjects  included  under  hygiene,  the 
use  of  alcohol  and  tobacco,  and  sex  problems  require 
detailed  discussion 

Alcohol. — The  results  of  scientific  study  leave  no 
doubt  that  alcohol,  even  in  small  quantities,  is  in- 
jurious to  children.  Alcohol  is  a  poison,  and  its  use 
by  children  should  be  prohibited.     The  statistics  in 


INSTRUCTION  IN  HYGIENE  151 

secondary  schools  of  delinquents  and  the  studies  that 
have  been  made  into  the  causes  of  insanity,  as  well  as 
the  frequent  occurrence  of  venereal  infection  among 
students  who  use  alcohol,  all  show  to  what  extent  the 
misuse  of  alcohol  may  lead.  The  campaign  against 
this  poison  is  an  unquestionably  justifiable  one;  its 
significance  is  still  underestimated  by  many.  That 
the  alcohol  problem  concerns  the  school  population 
is  witnessed  by  the  prevalence  of  the  evil  practices 
found  among  German  high-school  students;  these 
practices  are  copied  and  carried  on  by  the  pupils  of 
the  lower  schools  in  their  secret  societies,  and  -so  the 
evil  spreads.  The  vices  thus  propagated  are  a  blot 
on  the  morality  of  Germany  and  Austria.  One  of  the 
saddest  sights  is  the  teacher  addicted  to  drink. 

Theoretical  teaching  alone  will  not  cure  the  evil, 
and  the  influence  of  the  school  must  extend  to  the 
hours  si)ent  out  of  school  as  well,  to  the  extent  that 
alcoholic  drinks  may  be  excluded  from  the  social 
gathering  of  students  and  the  midnight  carousals  be 
condemned  by  public  opinion.  The  school  may  help 
by  prohibiting  the  use  of  alcohol  in  any  form  in  its 
recreation  camps,  on  walking  tours,  etc.  The  teacher 
who  in  the  interests  of  his  pupils,  because  of  the 
example  of  abstinence  which  he  sets,  is  willing  to 
sacrifice  his  own  pleasure  is  doing  a  genuine  service 
to  children. 

Tobacco. — Tol)acco,  also  is  to  be  condemned  for 
school  children  because  of  the  many  injurious  results 
that  arise  from  its  use  and  because  of  the  numifest 
tendency  for  the  habit  of  smoking  to  spread  among 
ever  younger  groups  of  pupils. 


152  SCHOOL  HYGIENE 

Attempts  have  been  made  in  many  countries  to 
combat  the  evils  of  drinking  and  smoking  by  legis- 
lative enactment.  In  the  United  States,  for  instance, 
the  act  of  Congress  passed  May  20,  1886,  and  which 
is  in  force  in  all  states  and  territories,  provides  that 
every  individual  shall  at  some  time  of  his  life  receive 
instruction  in  hygiene,  with  special  reference  to  the 
effects  of  stimulants  and  narcotics.  At  least  20,000,- 
000  children  come  under  the  influence  of  this  law. 

Sex  Hygiene. — Another  important  and  difficult 
problem  concerns  the  instruction  of  the  young  in 
matters  of  sex.  Next  to  tuberculosis,  alcoholism  and 
venereal  infection  are  the  two  greatest  evils — and 
preventable  evils — which  threaten  the  welfare  of  the 
human  race.  Masturbation  during  early  childhood 
which  is  widespread  among  boys  has  injurious  effects 
and  prepares  the  way  for  other  evils.  The  school  must 
do  its  part  to  stamp  it  out,  though  it  is  very  difficult 
to  attack  the  subject  directly  in  instruction,  and 
the  home  must  take  practical  measures  to  help. 
Much  may  be  done  through  discussions  at  parents' 
meetings.  In  a  number  of  German  cities  it  has  been 
the  custom  to  deliver  lectures*  to  those  graduating 
from  the  higher  schools  on  the  dangers  of  too  early 
sexual  intercourse,  but  these  measures  in  a  remarkable 
number  of  cases  come  too  late.  An  adequate  amount 
of  physical  exercise  with  the  opportunity  for  such 
exercise,  is  one  of  the  most  important  preventive 
measures.     The  city  of  Helsingfors  in  Finland,  through 

*Such  lectures  have  been  given  by  von  den  Stein  in  Diisseldorf, 
Sterntlial  in  Braunschweig,  Brenneoke  in  Magdeburg,  Stephani 
in  Mannheim,  Germany.     They  can  be  obtained  in  printed   form. 


INSTRUCTION  IN  HYGIENE  153 

the  efforts  of  Oker-Bloni,  has  taken  the  longest  step 
forward  that  has  yet  been  made  in  sex  instruction, 
by  imparting  information  on  these  subjects  to  gradu- 
ates of  the  elementary  schools. 

Girls  of  a  suitable  age  should  be  instructed  by 
women  teachers  a])Out  the  significance  of  the  monthly 
l)eriod  and  its  hygiene.  Such  instruction  is  sometimes 
difficult  in  schools  for  girls  where  the  teacher  of 
hygiene  is  a  young  physician;  but  the  difficulty  can 
be  obviated  by  putting  this  particular  work  into  the 
hands  of  a  woman  teacher  or  by  sending  to  the 
mothers  of  girls  suitable  printed  matter,  so  that  the 
mothers  themselves  may  enhghten  their  own  daughters. 


IV 

SCHOOL  DISEASES  AND  MEDICAL 
INSPECTION  OF  SCHOOLS 

Contagious  Diseases. — School  hygiene  has  arisen 
out  of  the  need  for  correction  of  certain  physical  con- 
ditions which  have  been  looked  upon  as  intimately 
connected  with  school  life.  It  is  a  universally^  recog- 
nized fact  that  such  acute,  contagious  diseases  as 
scarlet  fever,  diphtheria,  measles  and  whooping  cough 
are  most  frequently  contracted  in  school.  This  is, 
of  course,  due  to  the  fact  that  in  the  schoolhouse  we 
find  large  numbers  of  children  who  are  susceptible 
to  these  diseases,  which  are  carried  from  one  to  the 
other  in  daily  intercourse.  The  carrying  of  disease  is 
a  difficulty  of  the  school  which  can  never  be  wholly 
overcome,  but  it  can  be  minimized  to  a  considerable 
extent  by  preventive  measures. 

Well-lighted,  adequately  ventilated  and  clean 
schoolrooms,  recreation  rooms,  playgrounds,  small 
classes,  shower  baths,  etc.,  are  important  means  for 
the  prevention  of  diseases;  indeed,  if  their  hygienic 
importance  were  fully  recognized,  it  would  perhaps  not 
be  as  difficult  as  it  is  at  present  to  secure  sufficient 
appropriations  for  their  maintenance.  The  particu- 
lar ways  in  which  diseases  may  be  transmitted — })y 
the  common  drinking  cup,  by  expectorations,  the  use 

154 


SCHOOL  DISEASES  155 

of  slates,  kissing,  etc.,  have  already  been  mentioned. 
Poverty  also  plays  a  great  role.  In  the  sunless,  damp 
cellar  dwellings  of  the  poor  many  an  infected  child  lies 
without  medical  attention.  This  child  has  probably 
given  the  disease  to  others  while  he  still  attended 
school,  and  the  contagion  is  carried  further  by  broth- 
ers and  sisters.  The  regulations  of  the  school  should 
prevent  the  spread  of  infe(!tions  by  excluding  all  those 
who  show  symptoms  of  disease,  and  keeping  them  at 
home  during  the  time  of  illness.  Children  in  the  same 
household  should  also  be  prevented  from  coming  to 
school.  Furthermore,  care  should  be  taken  so  that 
the  excluded  children  do  not  mingle  with  their  com- 
panions on  the  playground.  This  isolation  should  bo 
lengthy  enough  to  prevent  all  possibility  of  infection, 
which  varies  with  different  diseases. 

Frequent  inspection  by  the  school  physician  is 
another  means  of  prevention.  The  teacher  if  he  is 
familiar  with  first  symptoms  also  can  do  much  to  ward 
off  infections,  especially  as  he  is  in  a  position  to  know 
what  is  the  normal  condition  of  the  child.  A  case 
of  violent  contagion  which  has  spread  through  an 
entire  class  may  necessitate  closing  the  whole  school, 
and  at  any  rate,  requires  thorough  disinfection. 

It  is  likewise  desirable  for  the  children  to  be  informed 
about  infections  and  how  to  avoid  them;  children 
should  be  asked  to  report  immediate^  any  departure 
from  normal  health.  In  the  case  of  a  spreading  infec- 
tion, the  parents  should  be  notified  so  that  they  may 
watch  their  own  children  and  keep  them  at  home  when 
the  first  suspicious  symptoms  occur. 

Our  subject  would  grow  to   undue  proportions  if 


156  SCHOOL  HYGIENE 

we  attempted  to  discuss  in  detail  all  the  ph5'sical 
disabilities  related  to  school  life,  but  two  difficul- 
ties— nearsightedness  and  spinal  curvature — demand 
attention. 

Myopia  (nearsightedness). — The  demand  made 
upon  the  eyesight  of  children  is  very  great.  It  is  a 
matter  of  scientific  knowledge  that  the  number  of 
childnni  who  are  nearsighted  and  the  degree  of  near- 
sightedness increase  from  grade  to  grade  and  from 
school  to  school  as  the  children  advance  in  school  life. 
This  fact  which  was  first  demonstrated  fortj^-five  years 
ago  by  Herman  Cohn  of  Breslau  in  an  examination 
which  he  made  of  the  eyes  of  10,000  school  children, 
has  since  been  corroborated  by  a  number  of  other 
investigators.  The  blame  can  not  be  placed  wholly 
upon  the  school  itself;  the  homework,  done  often 
under  unfavorable  conditions,  contributes  its  share. 
Another  cause  lies  in  the  reading  of  badly  printed 
books  in  a  poor  light,  that  of  dusk,  for  instance. 

The  argument  has  been  advanced  that  nearsighted- 
ness is  no  disablement  to  an  educated  man,  who  works 
on  nearb}^  things  and  can  see  them  with  ease.  That  an 
argument  of  this  sort  should  be  advanced  at  all  is 
astonishing.  Common  sense  tells  us  that  the  near- 
sighted person  can  by  no  means  be  as  well  off  as  the 
man  with  normal  vision.  Moreover,  not  all  near- 
sighted pupils  will  desire  to  become  pedants  or  clerks; 
some  might  wish  to  become  soldiers,  sailors  or  foresters. 
The  nearsighted  man  is  greatly  discomfited  if  he 
breaks  or  loses  or  forgets  his  spectacles,  is  humiliated 
when  he  passes  an  acquaintance  on  the  street  without 
recognizing  him;  he  can  not  find  his  way  about  in  the 


SCHOOL  DISEASES  157 

countryj  or  enjoy  a  ])eautiful  view  as  keenly  as  a  nor- 
mal-sighted individual.  Disadvantages  are  already 
felt  during  childhood.  K.  E.  Weiss  says:  "With  a 
diminished  function  of  sight,  fewer  sense  perceptions, 
and  hence  fewer  concepts,  are  possible;  the  nearsighted 
child  th('r(>fore  enters  school  with  a  complex  of  mental 
images  entirely  different  from  that  of  the  normal- 
sighted."  No  one  who  knows  conditions  as  they  are, 
and  as  they  will  no  doubt  long  continue  to  be,  will 
assert  that  all  nearsighted  children  can  get  proper 
glasses;  and  even  if  they  have  such  glasses  given  to 
them,  they  will  not  wear  them. 

The  school  can  not  shield  itself  behind  the  above 
extraordinary  argument,  particularly  as  nearsighted- 
ness may  lead  to  other  evils,  bad  posture  for  instance, 
and  bad  i)osture  in  turn  may  still  further  increase  the 
defect  of  the  eyes.  It  has  been  pointed  out  by  Berger 
of  Krefeld  (Germany)  that  nearsightedness  in  its  early 
form  can  be  corrected  and  the  vision  sharpened  if  the 
individual  arranges  his  hfe  so  that  he  may  have  long- 
range  vision;  gazing  at  distant  views  in  the  country 
may  help,  according  to  Kertzsch  of  Quedlinburg 
(Germany).  At  least  the  muscle  tension  of  accommo- 
dation is  relaxed. 

Spinal  Curvature. — Of  the  various  malformations  of 
the  spine,  all  of  which  deform  the  body,  lateral  cur- 
vature or  scoUosis  is  most  to  be  feared.  According 
to  the  degree  of  curvature,  other  evils,  as  disturbances 
in  circulation,  result.  The  relative  number  of  children 
who  develop  spinal  malformation  during  the  first  year 
of  school  life  is  very  great,  and  the  number  increases 
steadily  during  the  second  year.     That  the  school  is 


158  SCHUOJ.  HYGIENE 

to  blame  in  part  for  this  condition  cannot  be  denied; 
though  natural  disposition  plays  an  important  role 
and,  as  in  the  case  of  nc^arsightedness,  the  home  is 
also  to  be  held  accountable;  it  must  be  remembered 
that  the  homework  which  requires  sitting  is  largely 
that  of  the  school.  The  greater  percentage  of  spinal 
curvature  is  found  among  girls,  whose  weaker  muscula- 
ture and  bone  structure  offer  less  resistance  to  harmful 
influences  (cf.  p.  120).  Spinal  curvatures  once  started 
are  corrected  with  great  difficulty;  frequently  it  is 
impossible  to  straighten  the  bent  back,  and  many 
parents  later  spend  large  sums  of  money  and  infinite 
pains  trying  to  correct  that  which  should  have  been 
prevent(Hl  in  the  lieginning. 

Subnormal  Children. — The  recognition  of  definite 
"school  diseases"  was  the  first  incentive  toward 
securing  the  services  of  the  school  physician,  ])ut  since 
then  the  scope  of  the  work  has  been  extended,  and  the 
school  physician  to-day  must  examine  children  who  have 
not  yet  been  to  school,  but  are  about  to  enter.  An 
examination  of  the  school  records  of  Wiesbaden 
(Germany)  for  1898-1899  showed  that  of  the  970 
children  entering  school  only  50  percent  were  in  a 
normal  condition  of  health;  in  1901-1902,  64  percent 
of  the  833  entrants  were  below  par.  Formerly  in 
Dresden  when  it  was  the  custom  to  ascertain  the  state 
of  the  pupil's  health  from  the  parents,  only  IG  per- 
cent of  children  entering  school  were  found  to  be  sickly, 
but  since  the  time  of  medical  inspection  the  per- 
centage has  risen  enormously;  for  instance,  in  1901 
in  the  third  Dresden  school  district  of  the  064  children 
examined  44.27   percent   were   found  sickly;   and   in 


SCHOOL  DISIOASES       '  159 

1902,  of  tlio  479  children  entering  school  79.01  per- 
cent were  pronounced  subnormal.  These  higher  per- 
centages are  due  to  the  more  thorough  examina- 
tions; the  findings  emphasize  the  need  of  preventive 
measures  to  conserve  the  health  of  children.  Medical 
examination  reveals  the  fact  that  many  children  are 
physically  unfitted  for  the  work  of  the  schoolroom. 
When  in  1900  the  first  examinations  were  made  in  a 
number  of  Berlin  schools,  fully  300  out  of  the  2,500 
children  were  found  unfit  for  school.  Most  of  the 
rejected  children  were  in  a  state  of  general  weakness 
after  recovery  from  a  severe  illness  such  as  scarlet 
fever;  or  they  were  suffering  from  rachitis  or  anemia — ■ 
that  is,  physical  conditions  to  be  determined  only  by 
a  physician. 

The  School  Physician. — It  is  evident  from  the  fore- 
going discussion  that  the  work  of  the  school  physician 
is  to  be  advocated  in  the  interests  of  the  pul)lic,  as 
well  as  in  those  of  the  family.  It  is  the  acknowledged 
aim  of  teachers  and  school  officials  to  make  the  edu- 
cati(m  of  childn^n  a  wholesome  process,  but  unfortu- 
nately school  men  sometimes  fail  to  realize  this  ideal 
in  individual  cases.  This  statement,  which  is  based 
on  personal  experience  and  a  study  of  extensive 
literature,  is  made  with  certain  demands  in  mind, 
demands  which  the  school,  embodying  the  idea  of  an 
institution  for  compulsory  education,  has  naturally 
come  to  impose  upon  children.  The  lack  here  is  not 
of  good  intentions  on  the  ])art  of  school  men,  but 
rather  of  ch^ar  insight  which  neglects  to  make  use  of 
many  possible  preventive  and  constructive  measures 
in  the  school.     A  long-continued  study  made  of  the 


160  SCHOOL  HYGIENE 

legislative  enactments  in  force  in  various  civilized 
countries,  so  far  as  these  enactments  concern  school 
hygiene,  reveals  a  deplorable  lack  of  properly  directed 
effort  toward  hygienic  ideals,  even  in  cases  where  an 
excellent  model  is  at  hand  and  finances  need  not  be 
considered.  An  improvement  may  be  hoped  for  only 
with  the  help  of  expert  assistance,  as  has  been  demon- 
strated in  those  countries  where  progress  has  been 
made.  Excellent  work  has  of  late  been  done  in  some 
of  the  German  states,  especially  in  the  smaller  ones. 

The  demand  for  the  school  physician  is  not  new; 
the  need  was  felt  more  than  a  century  ago,  and  during 
the  past  fifty  years  it  has  become  imperative.  Pre- 
vious to  that  time  sanitation  had  been  generally  in 
charge  of  public  health  officers,  with  unsatisfactory 
results.  In  no  country  has  there  been  so  much  dis- 
cussion and  controversy  about  the  school  physician 
as  in  Germany.  It  would,  hardly  be  of  interest  to 
elaborate  the  details  of  this  discussion  at  congresses, 
in  pedagogical  and  medical  circles  and  in  the  press  of 
these  professions,  but  it  maybe  useful  to  sum  up  briefly 
the  imagined  dangers  of  the  school  physician  prob- 
lem. Teachers  feared  above  all  that  the  school  phy- 
sician in  the  role  of  a  new  kind  of  inspector  would  cur- 
tail their  limited  freedom  of  action,  and  that  he  would 
make  offensive  censures.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  such 
has  not  been  the  experience  in  countries  where  (he 
work  of  the  school  physician  has  been  observed  nor 
has  it  proved  to  be  the  case  in  Germany. 

School  phj^sicians  are  now  employed  in  hundreds 
of  cities  in  Europe  and  there  has  been  no  evidence 
that  these  fears  were  justified;  very  few  complaints 


SCHOOL  DLSKASi:S  161 

have  appeared  in  tlie  educational,  medical,  or  general 
press.  Conflicts  are  possi])Ie  wherever  luiman  beings 
congregate,  and  conflicts  between  the  teacher  and  the 
school  physician  ma}^  not  be  entirely  avoided  in  the 
future,  liut  ex])(^rience  has  proved  this  much,  that  the 
medical  inspection  of  school  children  by  trained 
physicians  is  eminently  desirable  and  that  the  objec- 
tions against  this  system  are  largely  figments  of  the 
imagination. 

It  might  have  been  expected  that  objection  to  the 
school  physician  would  be  based  on  another  argument, 
that  of  increased  work  for  the  teacher,  and  as  a  matter 
of  fact,  the  introduction  of  new  provisions  such  as 
school  baths  and  games  has  thrown  an  additional  bur- 
den upon  the  instructor,  not  only  in  keeping  records 
of  these  activities,  but  in  actual  physical  effort,  as  the 
weighing  and  measuring  of  children,  and  testing  their 
vision  and  hearing.  In  Switzerland  and  in  some  parts 
of  the  United  States  teachers  are  required  to  assume 
these  duties.  In  some  cases  of  this  kind  it  would 
seem  to  be  only  fair  to  make  some  financial  return  for 
the  extra  services  demanded  of  the  teacher. 

In  the  elementary  schools  of  to-day  there  is  little 
protest  against  the  school  physician  but  this  cannot  be 
said  of  the  higher  institutions,  although,  according  to 
Griesbach,  many  of  the  secondary  schools  in  Germany 
have  recently  expressed  themselves  in  favor  of  medical 
inspection,  and  a  number  of  eminent  educators.  Dorr, 
M.  Hartmann,  Herberich,  Harn,  Schiller,  and  Schot- 
ten  have  used  their  influence  in  this  direction.  But  at 
all  events,  the  situation  in  the  secondary  schools  with 
respect  to  medical  inspection  has  not  progressed  to 


162  SCHOOL  HYGIENE 

anything  like  the  same  extent  as  in  the  elementary 
schools.  The  reason  seems  to  lie  in  a  fear  that  the 
curriculum  will  be  disturbed  and  the  demands  now 
made  upon  i)upils  will  be  criticised  unfavorably. 
It  is  possible  that  this  fear  is  justifiable,  but  it 
should  be  impressed  upon  the  high  schools  that 
it  is  the  first  obligation  of  the  school  so  to  arrange  its 
educational  plans  that  there  shall  be  no  transgression 
of  the  laws  of  health,  and  the  high  school  teacher 
should  be  made  to  see  that  it  is  desirable  to  cultivate 
an  ideal  of  good  health,  which  should  lead  him  to  seek, 
rather  than  oppose,  the  cooperation  of  the  school 
physician.  As  to  the  limitation  of  the  teacher's 
authority,  that  must  rest  with  the  school  board. 
In  Sachsen-Meiningen,  Hungary  and  Saxony,  where 
school  physicians  are  employed  at  all  the  higher  insti- 
tutions of  learning,  the  plan  has  worked  out,  it  seems, 
with  practically  no  friction.  Undoubtedly,  the  intro- 
duction of  medical  inspection  into  high  schools  will 
yield  a  mass  of  observations  and  experiences  which  will 
be  of  the  greatest  possible  help  for  school  boards 
to  formulate  plans  for  a  more  hygienic  system  of  edu- 
cation. 

School  conditions  in  the  higher  institutions  may  be 
regarded  as  more  favorable  than  in  elementary  schools. 
The  material  in  high  schools  is  less  heterogeneous, 
being  the  result,  more  or  less,  of  a  process  of  selection; 
but  it  is  also  true  that  large  percentages  of  even  these 
selected  children  have  received  no  systematic;  medical 
examination.  The  argument  of  frequency  of  nervous 
disorders  in  the  higher  grades  of  the  high  schools  has 
already  been  mentioned.     What  is   most   needed   is 


SCHOOL  DISEASES  163 

a  clearer  uiulorstandiug  of  h(>altli  conditions  among 
3'ounjn;  ]km)))1(>,  and  this  can  be  gained  only  with 
the  assistance  of  the  school  physician.  This  is  so 
significant  that  it  seems  hardly  possible  that  the 
school  teachers,  men  and  women  of  culture,  will 
seriously  continue  to  oppose  an  "innovation"  which 
promises  at  least  to  afford  real  insight  into  present 
conditions,  and  holds  out  a  hope  that  these  may  be 
improved  with  added  knowledge.  So  far  as  the  prob- 
lems of  the  school  building — location  and  equipment 
are  concerned — we  ah'cady  have  at  hand  a  mass  of 
investigations  made  both  by  physicians  and  instructors. 
That  in  this  direction  also  there  is  great  room  for  im- 
provement is  revealed  by  a  personal  study  made  of  all 
the  higher  schools  in  a  whole  state.  In  consequence 
of  such  surveys  of  school  buildings  and  equipment,  it 
is  possible  to  make  suggestions  for  improvement.  If 
school  physicians  do  lack  technical  knowledge  of 
hygienic  school  equipment  and  knowledge  of  the 
hygiene  of  instruction  that  is  not  to  be  held  to  their 
discredit,  as  they  have  not  been  especially  prepared  in 
this  branch.  (  Their  most  important  work,  the  diagno- 
sis of  diseases  or  defects  among  children,  would  be 
rendered  still  more  significant  if  the  physicians'  train- 
ing had  been  especially  directed  to  making  examina- 
tions of  eyes,  ears,  nose  and  throat;  or  better  still  if 
specialists  in  each  of  these  branches  could  be  employed, 
as  is  already  the  practice  in  some  countries. 

Another  obstacle  which  has  made  the  solution  of  the 
problem  difficult  has  come  from  members  of  the  medi- 
cal prof(\ssion  itself  who  have  feared  conflicts  between 
school    physicians    and    public    health    officers,    and 


164  SCHOOL  HYGIENE 

between  school  physicians  and  parents.  It  has  been 
the  fear  of  the  family  physician  that  the  work  of  the 
medical  inspector  in  the  school  would  interfere  with 
and  limit  his  own  practice.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  these 
fears  also  seem  to  be  unfounded,  for  we  hear  of  few 
conflicts  between  school  physicians  and  general 
practitioners.  So  far  as  the  relations  of  the  school 
physician  and  the  health  officer  are  concerned,  the  cus- 
tom in  Germany  is  that  the  city  appoints  the  school 
physicians,  who  are  also  allowed  to  augment  their 
income  by  private  practice.  With  a  clear  understand- 
ing of  the  division  of  work,  friction  is  not  likely  to 
arise.  Of  course,  a  more  desirable  plan,  and  one  which 
the  author  advocated  years  ago,  would  be  to  select 
from  a  large  number  of  such  school  physicians  those 
who  are  especially  efficient  and  are  interesting  them- 
selves in  the  school  work,  and  provide  them  with  a 
salary  sufficiently  remunerative  to  enable  them  to  dis- 
continue their  private  practice.  Under  these  circum- 
stances the  school  physician  would  be  able  to  specialize 
on  his  work  to  an  extent  which  is  impossible  to  a  prac- 
tising physician.  'At  present,  there  is  small  incentive 
to  a  physician  to  devote  himself  intensively  to  the 
school  work  which  is  usually  dropped  as  his  practice 
increases.  It  must  be  remembered  that  generally 
really  efficient  service  can  be  secured  only  when  an 
adequate  salary,  with  a  prospect  of  advancement,  can 
be  offered  as  an  inducement.  For  larger  cities  it 
would  seem  to  be  most  practicable  first  to  increase  the 
number  of  public  health  officers  who  are  in  charge  of 
the  school  work  in  the  various  districts;  next  to  make 
a  selection   of  such   as   are   especially  fitted  for  the 


SCHOOL  DISEASES  165 

work  of  medical  inspection  in  the  schools;  and  then  to 
afford  the  latter  opportunity  for  further  study  in 
this  field. 

Conflicts  with  the  home  are  possible,  for  instance, 
when  a  spoiled  child  who  sinmlates  illness  is  found  to 
be  normal  by  the  school  physician;  or  there  may  be 
critical  situations  in  the  case  of  young  girls  who  refuse 
to  be  examined  by  a  young  physician  even  in  the  pres- 
ence of  a  woman  teacher.  Such  cases,  however,  con- 
stitute but  a  small  fraction  of  the  total  school  popula- 
tion. The  difficulty  in  the  latter  instance  might  be 
overcome  by  the  appointment  of  a  number  of  women 
doctors,  as  is  the  custom  in  some  countries.  In  gen- 
eral, the  procedure  in  dealing  with  parents  is  to  advise 
them  what  needs  to  be  done  for  the  child,  so  that  where 
the  parents  can  afford  it  they  may  consult  their  own 
family  physician.  The  result  will  be  that  the  family 
physician  is  consulted  more  and  not  less  frequently. 
Indig(nit  parents  should  be  referred  to  a  proper 
clinic  or  dispensary.  Unfortunately,  experience  every- 
where shows  that  where  the  parents  have  been  notified 
only  a  very  small  percentage  of  children  receive  treat- 
ment, partly  because  the  parents  are  neghgent  though 
they  may  be  quite  able  to  pay  for  consultation,  and 
partly  because  for  those  who  can  not  pay  there  are  not 
enough  clinics  and  dispensaries.  It  may  also  be  that 
the  mother  cannot  spare  the  time  to  go  far  to  a  dis- 
pensary and  cannot  wait  long  after  she  gets  there. 

School  Nurses. — For  these  reasons,  the  service  of  a- 
school  nurse  is  of  the  greatest  significance.  The  school 
nurse  was  first  employed  in  London  in  1901;  the  exam- 
ple thus  set  has  been  followed  extensively  in  Great 


16G  SCHOOL  HYGIENE 

Britain  and  the  United  States,  and  the  custom  is 
spreading  also  slowly  in  Germany  and  Switzerland. 
These  nurses  go  into  the  homes  and  confer  with  the 
mother,  showing  her  how  to  rid  the  child  of  pediculo- 
sis, how  to  syringe  the  ear  in  case  of  a  discharging  dis- 
ease, etc.;  the  nurse  also  takes  children  to  the  dispen- 
saries. In  short,  she  sees  to,  it  that  the  treatment 
recommended  by  the  school  phj-sician  is  carried  out, 
without  cost  to  those  who  can  not  afford  to  pay,  with 
cost  to  those  who  are  financially  able.  The  school 
nurse  marks  a  great  advance  in  the  work  of  medical 
inspection  of  school  children. 

School  Clinics. — Another  mark  of  progress  is  the 
establishment  of  school  clinics.  This  work,  begun  in 
1902  ])y  Jessen  in  Strassburg  (Germany)  in  the  form  of 
a  dental  clinic,  has  since  then  spread  over  all  the  civil- 
ized world  so  that  clinics  now  exist  in  many  cities. 
All  children  are  examined  and  those  who  cannot  pay 
have  their  teeth  attended  to  free  of  charge,  or  they  pay 
a  nominal  sum,  while  the  parents  who  are  able  to  pay 
for  treatment  are  advised  to  do  so. 

Different  cities  have  general  school  clinics  where 
treatment  is  given  and  shght  operations  are  performed. 
The  problem  of  free  medical  treatment  of  the  poor  in 
all  advanced  countries  is  recognized  as  an  important 
question;  it  is  most  complex,  but  its  solution  can  no 
longer  l)e  ignored.  It  is  a  well-knoAvn  and  sad  fact  that 
often  those  who  cannot  afford  to  pay  will  not  go  to  the 
clinics — simply  because  the  service  there  is  charity. 
What  is  needed  also  is  a  deeper  feeling  of  responsibility 
on  the  ])art  of  the  i)arents,  and  laws  forcing  parents  to 
secure  treatment. 


SCHOOL  DISEASES  167 

The  indications  are  that  medial  inspection  of  schools 
and  school  children  will  eventually  be  introduced  into 
all  classes  of  schools  in  all  civilized  countries,  though 
not  with  equal  ra])idity  in  all,  and  that  the  country 
which  introduces  it  earlier  will  reap  the  ])enefit  earlier, 
as  is  the  experience  in  all  other  cultural  movements. 
Medical  inspection  exists  to-day  to  a  greater  or  less 
extent  in  all  civilized  countries,  although  in  none  of  the 
greater  European  continental  states  has  the  problem 
been  adequately  solved  for  the  public  schools.  Prog- 
ress has  been  made  in  some  countries,  the  attempt  at 
meeting  the  difficulties  by  state  law  in  other  countries 
has  been  a  failure,  while  still  others  have  made  no 
serious  attempt  to  solve  the  problem.  The  greatest 
difficulty  of  all  is  presented  by  rural  communities. 

Historical  Survey  of  Medical  Inspection. — Belgium 
.stands  to  the  fore,  not  only  alphabetically,  but  as  the 
country  which  first  adopted  a  system  of  medical 
inspection  -in  its  schools.  School  physicians  have 
been  appointed  in  Brussels  since  1874,  and  the  exam- 
ple has  been  followed  by  other  Belgium  cities.  Many 
features  of  the  old  Brussels  system  have  served  as  a 
model.  A  specialty  of  the  Brussels  system  is  that  the 
school  physician  shall  prescribe  tonics,  codliver  oil  or 
iron,  to  those  children  who  may  be  in  need  of  these 
helps,  and  that  the  medicine  is  to  be  taken  regularly  in 
school  under  supervision  of  the  teacher.  As  far  as  we 
know,  only  one  other  city  in  another  country,  St. 
Petersburg  in  Russia,  has  adopted  a  similar  rule. 
The  school  records  show  that  about  10  percent  of  the 
children  in  the  schools  of  Belgium  every  year  are  in 
need  of  this  preventive  treatment,  and  that  the  results 


168  SCHOOL  HYGIENE 

have  proved  most  satisfactory.  Belgium  also  has 
good  school  clinics. 

In  Germany,  Saxony  has  taken  the  lead  since  1892, 
when  15  school  physicians  were  appointed  in  the  city 
of  Leipsic.  Conditions  in  Germany  differ  very  much 
in  the  different  states.  The  work  has  been  well 
summarized  by  Schubert  in  his  book  on  medical 
inspection  in  German  schools,  though  much  has  been 
done  since  then.  According  to  Schubert,  Sachsen- 
Meiningen  has  the  greatest  number  of  school  physi- 
cians. As  a  result  of  the  untiring  effort  of  Leubuscher, 
school  nurses  have  been  installed,  medical  inspection 
has  been  introduced  also  into  the  higher  schools,  and 
a  beginning  is  being  made  in  the  country  districts. 

The  system  of  medical  inspection  established  in 
1896  in  the  city  of  Wiesbaden  deserves  particular 
attention;  it  has  served  as  a  model  for  many  cities 
introducing  medical  inspection,  and  many  others  have 
already  modified  their  plans  in  conformity  with  its 
provisions.  In  Wiesbaden  the  parents  of  school 
children  are  informed  by  circular  about  the  aims  of  the 
system.  The  ^beginners,  after  they  have  presented  a 
certificate  from  their  family  physician,  undergo  a 
first,  rather  rapid  examination  by  the  school  physician 
with  respect  to  contagious  diseases  and  vermin.  Later 
on,  in  the  course  of  the  first  month,  they  are  examined 
with  greater  care  to  ascertain  whether  regular  medical 
supervision  or  special  concessions  in  their  school  work 
may  be  necessary.  The  mother  is  invited  to  be  pres- 
ent at  this  examination.  The  results  are  embodied 
in  a  health  report  which  is  filed  in  the  school  and  which 
when  the  child  leaves  is  sent  to  the  other  school  that 


SCHOOL  DISEASr:S  169 

he  enters.  The  report  of  every  child  who  needs  medical 
supervision  bears  the  words  "medical  control."  The 
child  is  re-examined  in  the  third,  fifth  and  eighth  year 
of  school  life.  After  the  last  examination,  as  it  may 
seem  desirable,  the  parents  are  urged  to  consult  with 
their  physician  before  deciding  upon  a  calling  for  the 
child. 

The  school  physician  has  office  hours  in  the  school 
Ijuilding  every  two  weeks,  more  frequently  in  the  case 
of  contagious  diseases.  On  the  day  preceding  the 
visit  of  the  school  physician,  a  circular  is  sent  to  the 
various  classrooms,  on  which  the  differcnit  teachers 
mark  the  names  of  those  "medical  control"  children 
who  are  to  be  examined.  The  classroom  teachers  then 
submit  the  health  reports  of  such  pupils  to  the  school 
physician.  The  physician  spends  the  first  half  of  his 
time  visiting  the  classrooms,  so  that  each  room  is 
examined  at  least  twice  during  the  term  as  to  heating, 
ventilation,  seating,  etc.  The  second  half  of  the  time 
he  spends  in  interviewing,  in  a  private  room,  the 
children  whose  names  he  has  on  his  list.  The  sick 
ones  he  recommends  to  the  care  of  the  family  physician 
or  to  a  clinic;  the  small  children  carry  a  note  home 
explaining  their  condition.  To  ascertain  whether 
absences  from  school  are  justifiable,  the  school  physi- 
cian may  have  to  visit  a  number  of  children  in  their 
homes  if  he  is  so  directed  by  the  principal.  The  school 
physician  is  not  permitted  to  give  directions  to  the 
personnel  of  the  school,  but  he  has  the  right  in  case  his 
suggestions  are  disregarded  to  complain  to  the  com- 
mission on  school  hygiene;  in  urgent  cases  he  can 
report  to  the  superintendent  of  schools  or  the  health 


170  SCHOOL  HYGIENE 

officer.  He  enters  his  remarks  about  sanitary  and 
hygienic  conditions  of  the  schoolroom  in  the  hygiene 
book  kept  in  the  school  and  makes  regular  reports  to 
his  chief,  who  includes  them  \v\t\\  others  in  his 'own 
report  to  the  city  authorities.  The  school  physicians 
hold  general  conferences  to  which  the  local  health 
officer  is  invited  when  matters  of  sanitation  are  under 
discussion.  Resignations  are  adopted  at  three  months' 
notice,  but  if  a  school  physician  neglects  his  duty  he 
may  be  dismissed  without  further  ceremony.  Ger- 
many has  many  variations  of  the  Wiesbaden  plan, 
but  the  matter  of  treatment  everywhere  still  needs 
improvement.  Mention  must  be  made  in  this  con- 
nection of  the  work  done  in  Berlin  to  extirpate  a 
certain  tenacious  hair  disease  which  is  relatively  rare 
in  Germany  but  very  contagious.  About  100,000 
children  were  examined  and  the  few  whose  hair  really 
was  diseased  were  cured — at  an  expenditure  of  enor- 
mous sums  of  monej^,  which  might  be  considered  small 
in  comparison  to  the  cost  of  extirpation  if  the  disease 
had  spread,  but  which  under  the  particular  circum- 
stances seems  high. 

England  and  Wales  are  establishing  medical  in- 
spection of  schools  through  the  state — a  great  step  in 
the  advance  of  progress.  The  Education  (Adminis- 
trative Provisions)  Bill  places  thv  duty  of  providing 
for  the  medical  inspection  of  school  children,  as  well 
as  the  power  to  make  other  arrangements  for  the 
health  and  physical  welfare  of  childrcni,  upon  the  local 
authorities.  The  state  contributes  annually  a  certain 
amount  per  capita  attendan(;e  (a  matter  of  about 
$70,000,000),   and  each  comnmnity  has  not  only  a 


SCHOOL  J)1SKASI%S  171 

material  interest  in  good  school  attendance  but  desires 
to  meet  the  state  requiroiii(>nts,  l)ecause  in  cases  of 
neglificnce  the  state  (•ontril)ution  can  be  withdrawn. 
This  ])laces  a  valual)le  weai)onin  the  hands  of  the  state 
authorities  in  enfondng  medical  inspection  of  schools. 
In  1908-1909,  314  of  the  328  school  districts  had  school 
physicians  and  55  had  already  provided  for  the  treat- 
ment of  children;  in  1909-1910  there  were  in  152  such 
districts  school  nurses.  Admirable  work  has  been 
done  in  some  rural  communities,  and  as  a  state  system 
of  medical  inspection  the  English  procedure  takes 
first  rank.  Comparable  to  English  progress  in  these 
matters  is  that  made  during  the  past  few  j^ears  in 
certain  states  of  the  United  States  where  legislative 
enactments  on  the  subject  have  been  passed. 

In  Austria  in  1909  medical  inspection  was  extended 
to  the  state  normal  schools.  In  this  way  the  pros- 
pective teachers  become  thoroughly  familiar  with 
the  workings  of  a  system  of  medical  inspection 
before  they  enter  their  profession.  The  very  suc- 
cess of  these  future  propagandists  will  depend  very 
much  upon  the  way  in  which  medical  inspection  is 
carried  on  in  the  normal  schools.  As  early  as  1885 
the  appointment  of  school  physicians  by  the  state 
was  begun  in  the  higher  schools  of  Hungary.  These 
physicians  must  present  evidence  to  show  that  they 
have  been  trained  for  the  work.  Their  duties  include 
sanitary  inspection  of  the  school  building  as  well  as 
the  examination  of  school  children.  The 'curriculum 
of  the  last  two  years  of  school  includes  facultative 
instruction  in  hygiene. 

Our    historical    survey    closes    with    Japan    where 


172  SCHOOL  HYGIENE 

medical  inspection  has  been  prescribed  by  law  since 
1898,  and  where  it  may  be  suspended  only  at  the  dis- 
cretion of  the  governor  in  communities  numbering 
less  than  5,000  inhabitants.  In  1909  the  number  of 
active  school  physicians  numbered  6,975,  and  these 
men  covered  only  about  54  percent  of  all  public 
schools.  The  outlay  for  medical  inspection  in  the 
schools  of  Japan  seems  exceedingly  small,  while  the 
number  of  school  physicians  is  an  imposing  one;  but 
unfortunately  exact  information  is  lacking  on  the  most 
important  point — the  actual  benefit  derived  therefrom 
by  the  individual  child. 


HYGIENE  OF  THE  TEACHING   PROFESSION 

The  hygiene  of  the  teaching  profession  can  be  treated 
only  very  generally  because  it  must  cover  many  differ- 
ent conditions  and  different  kinds  of  schools.  The 
profession  of  the  teacher  means  taxing  work,  which 
differs  for  instance  from  the  work  in  an  office  by  the 
intensive  application,  which  can  not  always  be  spon- 
taneous, demanded  at  every  minute  of  the  teaching 
day.  This  intensity  has  moreover  been  further 
■  deepened  by  the  new  methods  of  teaching.  To  speak 
continuously  in  a  large  room,  supervising  at  the  same 
time  a  great  number  of  children  and  holding  the 
attention  of  every  individual  child,  to  deny  oneself 
needed  pauses  for  rest,  to  repress  natural  needs,  all 
this  means  an  enormous  strain  on  the  nervous  system 
in  general,  with  particular  emphasis  upon  certain 
organs,  those  of  the  throat,  for  instance,  all  of  which, 
as  every  teacher  knows,  is  exhausting.  The  constant 
demand  made  upon  the  eyes  and  ears  in  the  constantly 
interrupted  attempt  to  stimulate  thought  processes  of 
large  numbers  of  individuals,  whether  instruction  or 
examination  be  4n  progress,  requires  a  supply  of  energy 
which  can  hardly  be  appreciated  by  the  layman. 
Teaching  in  a  schoolroom  is  very  different  from  giving 
a  private  lesson  to  a  single  pupil,  so  far  as  the  energy 
output  of  the  teacher  is  concerned. 

173 


174  SCHOOL  HYGIENE 

And  the  duties  of  the  teacher  are  not  ended  when 
school  is  over.  The  written  work  of  the  children 
must  be  corrected,  which  in  the  case  of  large  classes 
and  difficult  subjects  may  become  an  instrument  of 
mental  torture  for  the  teacher.  In  this  way  the 
teacher  may  get  into  a  condition  of  overwork  which 
can  not  fail  to  be  injurious  to  health.*  Because  of  the 
disadvantageous  circumstances  under  whicii  many 
teachers  must  work,  it  is  not  surprising  that  many  fall 
victims  to  chronic  nervous  excitability  and  chronic 
disturbances  of  the  organs  of  speech.  The  degree  to 
which  nervous  excitability  may  go  is  demonstrated  by 
the  excitement  caused  among  the  teaching  profession 
in  Germany  by  the  discussion  of  the  Lialjility  Act  in 
regard  to  accidents  of  pupils.  Women  teachers  espe- 
cially should  be  shielded  from  overwork.  Persons  of 
delicate  health,  those  having  a  nervous  tendency,  or 
those  afflicted  with  serious  defects,  should  not  choose 
teaching  as  a  profession.  A  sound  constitution,  ability 
to  endure,  patience,  poise  and  a  happy  spirit  are  in- 
valuable assets  of  persons  who  intend  to  take  up  a 
teacher's  career. 

Finall}^  it  must  be  emphasized  that  the  work  of  the 
school  physician  should  be  directed  also  to  obtaining 
a  clearer  understanding  of  what  is  needed  to  insure 
hygienic  conditions  for  teachers.  It  is  not  yet  the 
function  of  the  school  physician  to  make  routine  ex- 
aminations as  to  the  state  of  health  of  instructors,  but 
it  is  surely  not  too  much  to  ask  that  the  physician 

*  For  a  detailed  discussion  of  the  hygiene  of  the  teaching  profes- 
sion the  reader  is  referred  to  pages  .374-385  of  the  larger  work, 
'  Handbuch  der  Schulhygiene." 


HYGIENE  OF  TEACHING  PliOFESSION  175 

shall  report  unhygienic  conditions  wherever  he  finds 
them  in  the  school  and  that  if  teachers  desire  to 
consult  him  about  school  work  or  wish  advice  about 
e(iuipment,  he  should  be  willing  to  give  his  services. 
By  following  a  course  thus  outlincnl  it  will  be  possi- 
ble to  obtain  accurate  data  as  to  what  is  needed  to 
raise  the  health  and  vigor  of  the  teaching  profession  to 
a  higher  level. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 


It  has  not  been  possible  in  the  small  compass  of  this 
volume  to  present  more  than  a  cursory  discussion. 
Those  who  may  desire  more  d(^tailed  and  comprehen- 
sive data  on  the  various  subjects  included  under  the 
term  school  hygiene  are  referred  to  the  larger  work  on 
the  subject,  ''Handbuch  der  Schulhygiene,"*  which 
contains  in  addition  to  extensive  discussions  and 
excerpts  from  original  studies,  a  very  large  and  care- 
fully compiled  bibliography.  In  addition  a  very  small 
number  of  new  works  may  be  of  help.  Arranged 
under  the  various  headings  they  are: 

The  Schooliiouse  and  its  Equipment 

HiNTRAGER,  K.,  "  Volkswcluilhauser  in  Schweden,  Norwegen, 
Diineinark  uiul  Fiiinland,"  2nd  edition.  J.  M.  Gebhardt, 
Leipsic,  1914.  "  Volksschulen  in  Oesterreich-Ungarn, 
Bosnicn  und  Ilerzegowina."  Bergstrasser  (Kroner) 
Stuttgart,  1901.  "Volksschulen  in  Frankrcich."  Ebenda, 
1904.  Tlie  above  works  may  be  found  in  the  series  en- 
titled,  "  Fortschritte  auf  dem  Gebiete  der  Architektur," 

*BuRGERSTEiN,  L.  and    Netolitzky,  a.    "Handbuoh    der  Schul- 
hygieno,"  3rd  edition.     Job.  Aiiihr.  Barth,  Leipsic,  1912 


170  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

published  by  Bergstriisser  in  Stuttgart.  In  addition  to  an 
account  of  the  hiws  and  provisions  which  have  been 
passed,  these  works  contain  a  compleie  bibhography. 
Much  of  this  is  appHcable  to  high  schools  also. 

The  Hygiene  of  Instruction 

Offner,  M.,  "Mental  fatigue.  A  comprehensive  exposition 
of  the  nature  of  mental  fatigue,  of  the  methods  of  its 
measurements  and  of  their  results  with  special  reference 
to  the  problems  of  instruction."  Translated  from  the  Ger- 
man by  Guy  Montrose  Whipple,  assistant  professor  of 
educational  psychology,  Cornell  University.  Baltimore. 
Warwick  &  York,  1911.     (With  bibliography.) 

Physical  Training 

Schmidt,  F.  A.,  "Unser  Korper.  Handburh  dor  Anatomic, 
Physiologic  u.  Hygiene  der  Leibesiibungen,"  4th  edition. 
Voigtlander,  Leipsic,  1913. 

Medical  Inspection  of  Schools 

Schubert,  P.,  "Das  Schularztwesen  in  Deutschland."  Voss, 
Hamburg,  1905.  A  number  of  the  books  pubhshed 
by  G.  B.  Teubner,  Leipsic,  in  the  series  "Aus  Natur  und 
Geisteswelt"  will  be  of  interest,  particularly  those  on 
.  anthropology,  medical  treatment,  and  hygiene.  The 
original  of  the  translation  of  the  present  little  book  is 
volume  36  of  that  collection. 

GuLiCK,  Luther  H.  and  Ayres,  Leonard  P.,  "Medical  In- 
spection of  Schools,"  2nd  edition,  Survey  Associates,  New 
York,  1913. 


INDEX 


Abersee,  Lake,  vacation  camp 
on,  140. 

Adjustable  furniture,  discus- 
sion of,  49,  50. 

vEsthoonictric  method  of 
measuring  fatigue,  78. 

Agahd,  in(histrial  work  of 
children  studied  l)y,  123. 

Age,  for  entering  school,  SI. 

Air:  condition  of,  during 
singing,  122;  deterioration 
of,  during  lesson  period,  96; 
discussion  of,  29-32;  kept 
good  by  garden,  63. 

Airing:  importance  of,  33,  34; 
necessity  for,  at  end  of  les- 
son period,  96. 

All)uinin,  in  urine,  in  children 
using  (uu'ved  back  rest,  53. 

Alcohol:  in  boarding  schools, 
143;  in  camps,  141;  discus- 
sion of,  150. 

Alcohol  lamps,  unsuitability 
of,  for  school,  27. 

Alphabet  measure,  by  C'ohn, 
107. 

Alsace-Lorraine,  law  in,  re- 
garding size  of  classes,  90. 

Ambidexterity,  futility  of 
ti'aining  for,  IIS. 

AnaMuia,  among  secondary 
school  children,  84,  S5. 

Antiseptic  blackboards,  used 
in  New  York  City,  59. 

Arrangement  of  rooms  in  the 
schoolhouse,  15. 

Arithmetic,  Friedrich's  tests 
of,  after  or  without  recesses, 
100. 

Assembly  room  (see  Recrea- 
tion liall). 


Asthenopia,  due  to  eyestrain, 
IK). 

Attention,  period  of  po.ssible, 
94,  95. 

.Vustria,  law  in:  about  exami- 
nations, 128;  concerning 
order  of  subjects  in  curricu- 
lum, 101 ; regarding  corporal 
pimishment,  134;  regarding 
weight  of  school  l)ooks,  94. 

Austria,  medical  inspection  of 
schools  in,  171. 

Bacteria,  moist  floors  breed^, 
45. 

Back  rest,  of  seat,  52. 

Badalini,  investigation  by, 
concerning  effect  of  posture 
on  respiration,  110. 

Barracks,  school,  temporary 
use  of,  4. 

Basel,  rules  regarding  text- 
book print  in,  108. 

Baths:  deprivation  of,  as  pun- 
ishment, 136;  discussion  of, 
63-65. 

Belgium :  corporal  punish- 
ment in,  134;  first  to 
have  medical  inspection  of 
schools,  167. 

Bergen,  average  attendance 
per  class  in,  90. 

Berger,  statement  by,  concern- 
ing    nearsightedness,     157. 

Berhn:  hair  disease  in,  170; 
half-hour  lessons  in,  96;  sub- 
normal children  entering 
school  in,  1.59;  time  spent  on 
music  in,  127. 

Berne,  abolishing  of  slates  in, 
109. 

177 


178 


INDEX 


Beutner,  pavilion  school  built 
by,  5. 

Billet,  physical  effect  of  exam- 
inations studied  by,  129. 

Bion,  originator  of  the  vaca- 
tion colony,  140. 

Blackboards,  discussion  of,  59. 

Boarding  schools,  discussion 
of,  142,  143. 

Bonoff,  physical  effect  of  ex- 
aminations studied  by,  129. 

Books:  carrying  of,  92-94; 
print  in,  107;  weight  of,  93. 

Boys:  industrial  work  of,  127; 
suicides  of,  135. 

Brilloigiradchalter,  descrip- 
tion of,  58. 

Brussels,  school  physicians 
first  appointed  in,  1(J7. 

Camps,  discussi(jn  of,  140, 141. 

Carbon  dioxide,  percentage  of, 
in  fresh  and  in  expired  air,  29. 

Casein  cement,  description  of, 
44. 

Ceiling  of  the  classroom,  44. 

Cellar,  desirability  of  a,  11. 

Cesspools,  discussion  of,  70. 

Charlotten])urg,  open  air 
school  in,  141. 

Children,  care  of,  v,  xv. 

('himneys,  special,  for  gas 
heating,  39. 

Cldopin:  nervous  disorders 
among  high  school  children 
investigated  by,  131;  sui- 
cides in  high  schools  studied 
by,  135. 

Chlorosis,  in  high  school  chil- 
dren, 84. 

Christiania,  average  attend- 
ance per  class  in,  90. 

Classroom:  discussion  of,  42; 
importance  of  the,  15,  18; 
location  of,  16,  18. 

Cleaning:  discussion  of,  73, 
74;  of  windows,  24;  of 
sliades,  25. 


Clinics,  school,  discussion  of, 
106. 

Cloak  rooms:  discussion  of 
12,  13;  for  gymnasium,  61; 
in  London  schools,  13,  16; 
separate,  in  Danish  school- 
house,  16. 

Closets:  outdoor,  in  Main^ 
schools,  71;  sijihon,  69. 

Co-education,  discussion  of, 
^  82-88. 

Cohn:  examination  by,  con- 
cerning nearsightedness, 
156;  on  lighting,  18;  rules 
l)y,  regarding  print,  106. 

Constitution,  of  children,  78. 

Construction,  of  the  school- 
house,  2,  11,  12. 

C-ontagious  diseases,  spread 
of:  in  boarding  schools,  142; 
by  drinking  cup,  10;  in 
large  classes,  89. 

Contagious  diseases,  discus- 
sion of,  154-156. 

Cooking,  instruction  in,  66. 

Copenhagen:  law  in,  against 
dust,  74;  vacation  camps 
started  in,  140. 

Copybook:  guide  for,  115; 
position  of,  112. 

Corners,  need  of  rounded, 
44. 

Corporal  punishment,  discus- 
sion of,  133-135. 

Corpuscle,  red  l)lood,  effect  of 
liad  air  on,  32. 

Cori'idors:  location  of,  16; 
width  of,  14. 

Cottage  plan  of  school,  4. 

Curriculum,  of  secondarv 
schools,  <S7-103. 

Cuspidors,  for  the  classroom, 
59. 

Danish  Commission:  illness  in 
secondary  schools  investi- 
gated by,  83;  report  on 
desks  by,  49. 


INDEX 


170 


Danish  schoolhouse,  plan  of  a, 
13,  16. 

Dankwarth,  experiments  by, 
on  airing,  34. 

Deaf  children,  special  provi- 
sion for,  51. 

Defective  chikhen,  discussion 
of,  79-81. 

Denmark:  law  in,  concerning 
size  of  classes,  90;  one- 
roomed  .schoolhouse  of,  16; 
one-session  school  dav  in, 
105. 

Dental  clinics,  in  Strassburg 
and  elsewhere,  166. 

Desks:  discussion  of,  46-57; 
two-seated,  56. 

Dettweiler,  saliva  ci'p  de- 
signed by,  59. 

Diagnosis  of  disea.se,  by  school 
physician,  163. 

Dictation,  Friedrich's  tests  of, 
after  or  witliout  recesses, 
lOl). 

Dimensions  of  schoolroom,  42, 
89. 

Disinfecting  of  walls,  44. 

Distance:  adjusters,  54;  be- 
tween seat  and  desk  top, 
53. 

Doernberger,  studies  by,  re- 
garding overwork,  126. 

Domestic  science,  rooms  for, 
66,  116. 

Dormitories,  •  in  boarding 
schools,  143. 

Dorr,  medical  inspection  ad- 
vocated by,  161 

Dresden,  .subnormal  children 
entering  school  in,  15(S. 

Drinking  cups:  in  common 
use,  9,  10;  disease  spread 
by,  154. 

Drontheini:  average  attend- 
ance per  class  in,  90; 
pavilion  school  at,  5,  6. 

Dufestel,  measuring  rod  de- 
signed by,  48. 


Dust:  l)urned,  a  cause  of  air 
deterioration,  37,  40;  har- 
bored by  soft  wood  floors, 
44;  in  the  gynmasium,  60; 
oiling  of  floors  recommend- 
ed for,  45;  particularly  in- 
jurious during  singing,  122; 
presence  of,  on  light  reflect- 
ors, 26;  problem  most  fre- 
quently studied  in  schools, 
33;  source  of  air  deteriora- 
tion, 32;  stirred  up  by 
cleaning,  74. 

Dusting,  of  furniture,  33. 

Dwelling,  and  school  com- 
bined, 72,  73. 

Dynamometer,  for  estimating 
fatigue,  77. 

Egloff,  Welsbach  lamp  de- 
signed by,  27. 

Eichstadt,  instruction  in  hy- 
giene first  given  in  schools 
of,  149. 

Electric  light,  best  for  schools, 
26. 

Elementary  schools:  home- 
work in,  123;  hygiene  in- 
struction in,  14S;  sex  in- 
struction in,   153. 

England  (see  also  Great  Bri- 
tain) :  law  in,  regarding  in- 
struction in  cooking,  66; 
medical  inspection  in,  170. 

Entrance  to  schoolhouse,  12. 

Ercklentz,  experiments  by,  on 
air  condition,  31. 

Ergograph,  fatigue  tests  by 
the,  77,  120,  121. 

Erismann,  quoted  on  light,  26. 

Esniarch,  von,  air  deteriora- 
tion through  burning  dust 
found  by,  37. 

Eulenberg,  investigation  by: 
concerning  suicides,  135; 
regarding  spinal  curvature, 
84;  regarding  weight  of 
school  books,  93. 


180 


INDEX 


Examinations,  discussion  of, 
127,128. 

Excursions,  on  liolidays,  141. 

Exercise:  durinj^  peninansliip 
period,  111;  gymnastic,  dis- 
cussion of,  118;  need  of  rest 
after,  98,  122;  physical,  in 
New  York  City  schools,  96; 
small  opportunity  for,  105. 

Expectoration  receptacles,  for 
the  schoolroom,  59. 

Extra  lessons,  time  devoted 
to,  126,  127. 

Ej^es,  strain  upon,  in  hand- 
work, 116. 

Eye  shields,  necessary  with 
direct  light,  29. 

Fatigue:  discussion  of,  75-78; 

produced  by  different  school 

subjects,   101;  produced  by 

play,  119,  120. 
Feeding  of  school  children,  66, 

67. 
Filtering  of  dusty  air,  36. 
Filters,  unrelial^ilitj-  of,  8. 
Finland:  co-education  in,  88; 

corporal  punishment  in,  134. 
Fire  regulations,  discussion  of, 

74. 
Floors:  covering  for,  in  gym- 
nasium,   60;   discussion   of, 

44-46. 
Fliigge,    experiments    by,    on 

ventilation,  30. 
Funster,     cooking    instruction 

advocated  l)y,  66. 
Fountains,    drinking,    discus- 
sion of,  9-11. 
France,   corporal  punishment 

in,  134. 
Frank,  modern  school  hygiene 

introduced  by,  xvii. 
Frankfort,  plan  of  schoolhouse 

of  thirty-two  classes  in,  15, 

16. 
Friedrich,  effect  of  recesses  on 

work,  investigated  by,  99. 


Fungus,  on  the  walls,  12. 
Furttenbach,    on   schoolhouse 
and  equipment,  xv. 

Gardens,  for  the  school,  63. 

Gas:  heating  by,  38;  lighting 
by,  26. 

General  practitioners,  in  rela- 
tion to  school  physicians, 
164. 

Germany,  adjustable  desks 
used  in,  49. 

Giessen,  one-session  school 
day  in,  105. 

Girls:  co-educative  competi- 
tion in  high  schools  harmful 
to,  85;  greater  .suggestibility 
of,  86;  greater  tendency  to 
eyestrain  of,  116;  individual 
exercise  curriculum  needed 
for,  120;  mentality  of,  equal 
to  boys,  86;  music  lessons 
of,  127;  spinal  curvature 
among,  92,  158. 

Glue,  unhygienic  conditions 
caused  by,  117. 

Gossler,  von:  decree  on  play 
by,  63;  statement  by,  on 
homework,  124. 

Gottingcn,  school  baths  first 
used  in,  63. 

Grassmann,  studies  by,  con- 
cerning overwork,  126. 

Great  Britain  (.see  also  Eng- 
land): adjustable  desks  in, 
49;  medical  ins])ection  in, 
170;  school  nurses  in,  166. 

Griesbach,  metliod  of,  for 
measuring  fatigue,  78. 

Grimm,  statement  by,  con- 
cerning use  of  Latin  type, 
109 

Grollmuss,  device  by,  for 
copybook  writing,  115. 

Groupe  .scolaire,  at  Viroflay, 
France,  17. 

Gstettner,  statement  by, 
concerning  l)lackbi);irds,  59. 


INDF.X 


181 


Gymnasiuiu,  discussion  of,  (iO, 

Gl. 
Gyinn.istios    (see    also    Exex'- 

ciso):  discussion  of,  ILS. 

Ilakunson-IIanscn,  pavilion 
school  designed  by,  5,  6. 

Halle:  investigation  concern- 
ing illness  of  school  cliiltlreii 
in,  KKi;  investigation  con- 
cerning sleep  of  children  in, 
130. 

Hansen,  adjustable  desk,  49. 

Harn,  medical  inspection  ad- 
vocated by,  161. 

Hartnian,  medical  inspection 
advocated  by,  161 

Headache,  in  secondary  school 
children,  85. 

Health  officers,  in  relation  to 
school  j)hysicians,  164. 

Hearing,  tests  for,  by  teach- 
ers, 161. 

Heat:  accumulation  of,  in 
body,  30,  31;  loss  of,  by 
airing,  34. 

Heating,  discussion  of,  36- 
41. 

Helsingfors,  first  city  to  give 
sex  instruction  to  elemen- 
tary school  graduates,  152. 

Helwig,  effec't  of  bad  air  on 
red  l>lood  cells  stvidied  bv, 
32. 

Herberich,  medical  inspection 
advocated  by,  161. 

Hertel,  investigation  by,  con- 
cerning illness  of  school 
children,  81,  83. 

Hessen:  corporal  punishment 
in,  134;  forty-live  minute 
lessons  in,  96;  homework  in, 
124;  one-session  school  dav 
in,  105. 

High  schools  (see  Secondary 
Schools). 

Histori(5al  survey,  of  medical 
inspection,  167. 


Homecraft  sc-hools,  in  London, 

66. 
Homework,  di-scussion  of,  123. 
Hot  air  heating,  discu.ssion  of, 

40. 
Hot  water  heating,  discussion 

of,  40. 
Hours,  discussion  of,  91,  92. 
Humidity,  high,  favorable  to 

heat  accumulation,  31. 
Hungary:   medical   inspection 

in  normal  schools  of,   171; 

school    physicians    in    high 

S(!hools  of,  162. 

Hierg,  designer  of  Brillen- 
gcrndehnlter,  58. 

Ice  fields,  in  small  towns,  62. 

Ignatieff,  physical  effect  of 
examinations  studied  by, 
129. 

Infections  (see  Contagious  dis- 
eases). 

Inspection,  for  personal  clean- 
liness, 94. 

Instruction:  in  hygiene,  145; 
length  of,  period,  94. 

Insidating  material,  in  build- 
ing, 11. 

Iwliew,  physical  effect  of 
examinations  studied  by, 
129. 

Janitor,  desirability  of,  liv- 
ing in  schoolhouse,  73. 

Japan :  corporal  punishment 
in,  134;  decree  of,  regarding 
recreation,  97;  medical  in- 
specition  in,  171. 

Jasper,  diffused  lighting  fir.st 
used  by,  27. 

Jessen,  in  charge  of  first 
dental  clinic,  166. 

Kalle,   instruction  in  cooking 

advocated  by,  66. 
K.'imp,  instruction  in  cooking 

ailvocated  by,  6t). 


182 


INDEX 


Keller:  fatigue  produced  b\' 
gymnastics  tested  by,  120; 
use  of  4o-minute  lesson 
periods  b}-,  96. 

Kenotoxin:  antibody  for,  76; 
experiments  with,  by  Wei- 
chardt,  75. 

Kerosene  lamps,  unsuitability 
of,  for  school,  27. 

Kertzsch,  statement  by,  con- 
cerning nearsightedness, 
157. 

Key:  investigation  by,  con- 
cerning sleep  of  high  scliool 
pupils,  I'M;  investigation 
by,  concerning  time  spent 
on  music,  127;  investiga- 
tions by,  regarding  illness 
of  secondarj^  school  chil- 
dren, 83,  131;study  by,  con- 
cerning effect  of  homework, 
125. 

Kindergarten,  combined  with 
elementary  school,  18. 

Klagenf  urt,  abolishing  of  slates 
in,  110. 

Knapsack  for  carrying  books, 
92. 

Kraepelin,  statement  by,  re- 
garding inattention,  95. 

Lavatories:  discussion  of,  59; 
for  gymnasium,  61;  in  Lon- 
don schools,  13. 

Length  of  instruction  j)eriod, 
94. 

Lentz,  suicide  case  cited  bv, 
135. 

Lessenich,  physique  of  school 
children  studied  by,  79. 

Leubuscher:  nervous  disturb- 
ances in  high  schools  in- 
vestigated by,  130;  on  in- 
dustrial work  of  children, 
124. 

Light  (lighting),  discussion  of, 
19-29. 


Lindiiolm,  investigation  by, 
regarding  anemia  and  head- 
ache in  secondary  schools, 
_  85. 

Linoleum,  for  the  classroom, 
45. 

Lobsien :  absence  records  stud- 
ied by,  139;  effect  of  breath- 
ing exercises  on  miyitality 
investigated  by,  32. 

Location,  of  schoolhouse,  7. 

London  :  cloakrooms  in  schools 
of,  13;  instructitm  in  domes- 
tic science  in,  66;  number  of 
children  to  a  class  in,  90; 
practice  of  leaving  books  in 
school  in,  94;  roof  play- 
grounds in,  62;  schoolhou.se 
of  twenty  classes  in,  14,  16; 
school  nurses  first  employed 
in,  165;  swimming  pools  in, 
65;  tiling  used  in  classrooms 
of,  44. 

Lorenz,  use  of  anti-kenotoxin 
by,  76. 

Lorenz,  H.,  designer  of  posture 
head  band,  58. 

Lumbar  spine,  need  of  support 
for,  53. 

Maine,  closets  prescribed  by 
board  of  health  in,  71. 

Malnutrition,  a  cause  of  back- 
wardness, 79. 

Manual  training,  hygienic 
value  of,  116. 

Maps,  need  for  clearness  of, 
108. 

Maxims,  for  hygiene  instruc- 
tion, 148. 

Meals,  disadvantageous  ar- 
rangement of,  102,  105. 

Measuring:  of  children  for 
desks,  47;  rod,  48. 

Medical  inspection  of  schools: 
for  contagious  diseases,  155; 
need  of,  125. 


INDEX 


183 


]\loidiii}2;cr   stove,    description 

of,  35,  36. 
Mental  energy:  diminished  by 

physical  exercises,  9S;  raised 

by  ri'c(»sses,  101. 
Mentality   of 

with  that  of  boys,  86. 
Mentally     defective,     not    as 

robust   as  normal  cliildren, 

79. 
Meyer,    quantity   of   ilust    in 

schoolroom  found  b}^,  32. 
Mikkelson,    studies    by,    con- 

cerninj?  posture  in  manual 

work,  117. 
M()haui)t,  use  of  talk  jjcriods 

by,  96. 
Moral    delinquencies:    not    a 

great    danger    in    coeduca- 
tion, 86;  spread  of,  in  large 

clas.ses,  89. 
MiM'bidity,  highest  in   March 

and  April,  138. 
Mosso,  inventor  of  ergograph, 

77. 
Movable     desks,     description 

of,  56,  57. 
Munich  :  deprivation  of  baths, 

punishment  in,  136;  feeding 

of  school  children  in,  ()7. 
Muscle  capacity,  test  of,   foi- 

fatigue,  77. 
Music  lessons,  time  spent  on, 

127. 
Myopia  (see  Nearsightedness). 

Nearsightedness:  discussion 
of,  156,  157;  relief  afforded 
to,  by  recesses,  97;  special 
provision  for,  51. 

New  York  City:  gymnastic 
exercises  in,  96;  roof  ])lay- 
grovuids  in,  62,  Fig.  32. 

Nitrogen,  jier  cent,  of,  in  fresh 
and  expired  air,  29. 

Noise,  prevention  of,  11. 

Normal  schools,  medical  in- 
spection in,  171. 


Nortliern  exposure,  value  of, 
in  comparison  with  .south- 
ern, 7. 

Norwaj^:  law  in,  regarding 
size  of  classes,  90;  ])avilioii 
schools  in,  5,  6. 

Norwegian  committee,  inves- 
tigation by,  regarding  ill- 
ness of  secondary  school 
children,  83. 

Nuinl)er  of  pupils  to  a  class,  88. 

Nurses,  school,  discussion  of, 
165,  166. 

Nussbaum,  deterioration  of 
air  through  burning  dust 
found  by,  37. 

Oblique  writing,  discussion 
of,  111-116. 

Oil:  for  floors,  45,  60;  for 
toilets,  69,  72. 

Oker-Blom:  studies  ])y,  con- 
cerning fatigue,  120;  work 
by,  on  sex  instruction,  153. 

One-  or  two-session  day,  dis- 
cussion of,  102--106. 

Open  air  boarding  schools, 
origin  of,  143. 

Open  air  schools,  discussion  of, 
141. 

Oven^rowded  classes:  a  cause 
of  overwork,  127;  hygienic- 
ally  considered,  89. 

Overw^ork:  discussion  of,  130; 
of  teachers,  174. 

Oxygen,  per  cent,  of,  in  fresh 
and  expired  air,  29. 

Palmberg,  excuses  from  phys- 
ical training  investigated 
by,  85. 

Paper,  surface  of,  for  writing, 
110. 

Paris,  provision  for  school 
feeding  in,  66. 

Patzak,  study  by,  on  compre- 
hension by  pupils  of  sub- 
jects taught,  126. 


184 


INDEX 


Paul,  experiments  by,  on  air 
condition,  81. 

Pavilion  school  at  Drontheim, 
5,  34. 

Pedestal  desk,  illustration  of, 
Pis.  27. 

Penholder,  proper  position  of, 
111,  113. 

Pettenkofer,  von,  criterion  by, 
for  air  condition,  30. 

Physical  examination :  for 
gymnasium  work,  06,  120; 
necessary  for  camp  life, 
140. 

Phvsical  director,  work  of  the, 
147. 

Physical  training  (see  also 
Gymnastics):  excuses  from, 
85;  in  the  open  preferable, 
61;  medical  examination 
necessary  for,  120. 

Physician,  school :  aid  to  teach- 
ers afforded  by  the,  174; 
discussion  of,  159-165;  dis- 
missal of,  170;  for  hygiene 
instruction  in  secondary 
schools,  146;  needed  for  ex- 
amination of  children  enter- 
ing school,  158;  visits  of,  to 
homes,  169. 

Physics  instructor,  recom- 
mended for  supervision  of 
heating,  41. 

Physiological  methods  for 
measuring    fatigue,     78. 

Piesen,  injiny  caused  by  back 
rest  fovmd  by,  53. 

Pircjuet,  von,  on  tuberculosis 
in  children,  61. 

Planning:  of  gymnasium,  61; 
of  schoolhouse,  1-2. 

Play:  discussion  of,  118-122; 
required  amount  of  space 
for,  14.  62. 

Playgrounds:  discussion  of, 
61-63;  indoor,  14;  outdoor, 
covered,  18;  supervision  of, 
16. 


Pleasure,  deprivation  of,  as 
punishment,  136. 

Pleiei-,  camera  for  measuring 
angle  of  light,  20,  21. 

Photometer:  by  Weber,  19; 
bv  Wingen,  19. 

Pits,  for  waste,  70. 

Plans  of  schoolhouses,  16. 

Population,  school:  percent- 
age defective,  80;  propor- 
tion to  total,  4. 

Porter,  physique  of  school 
cluldren  studied  bj^,  79. 

Pcsture:  bad,  caused  by  near- 
sightedness, 157;  bad  print 
leads  to  bad,  107;  discus- 
sion of,  58-59;  effect  of  bad, 
on  respiration,  110;  in  writ- 
ing, 108,  111;  importance  of, 
in  manual  work,  113,  117; 
not  to  be  forced  by  desk,  46. 

Prausnitz,  experiments  with 
diffused  lighting  bv,  28. 

Print,  Cohn's  rules  for,  107. 

Progress  in  school,  in  relation 
to  physique,  78. 

Prussia,  '  law  in,  regarding 
length  of  lesson  periods,  96, 
105;  law  in,  regarding  size  of 
classes,  90;  provision  in,  for 
leaving  books  in  school,  94. 

Psychological  mel  hods,  for  es- 
timating faligue,  77. 

Puberty,  differences  of  devel- 
opment at,  82. 

Pubescence,  period  of  lessened 
resistance,  87. 

Punijihments,  discussion  of, 
131-135. 

Pupils,  number  of,  to  an  av- 
erage room,  42,  89. 

Reading,   discussion   of,  106- 

109. 
llecess,  discussion  of,  96-101 ; 

necessity  of,  67;  not  to  be 

forfeited,    132;    pedagogical 

value  of  the,  98. 


INDEX 


185 


Recreation  (sec  also  Play): 
curtailed  time  for,  126;  pro- 
vitled  for,  by  Japanese  law, 
97. 

Hec.reat  ion  hall,  for  all  classes, 
15;  supervision  of,  16. 

Ueddie,  originator  of  "The 
New  School,"  143. 

Rellect ors,  for  windows,  25,  26. 

Reilnuayr,  exi)eriinents  with 
direct  lij;htin};  Ity,  29. 

Reifcpriifuucjen,  hygienically 
considered,  128. 

Rettig,  inventor  of  moval)le 
desk,  .56. 

Roller,  industrial  work  of  boys 
studied  by,  127. 

Rollers  for  desks,  56,  57,  Figs. 
30,  31. 

Roof  playgrounds,  in  New 
York  C;ity,  62,  Fig.  32. 

Room  angle  of  light,  20,  21. 

Rural:  diihculty  of  medical 
inspection  in,  schools,  167; 
schools,  3;  school,  Danish, 
16;  medical  inspection  in, 
English  schools,  171;  wells, 
8. 

Russia:  nervous  disturbances 
in  high  schools  in,  131;  va- 
cations in,  137. 

Sachsen-Meinigen,  school 
physicians  in  high  schools 
in,"  162. 

Saxony:  law  in,  regarding 
higher  education  of  girls, 
88;  schools  physicians  in, 
162,  168. 

Scandinavia,  co-education  in, 
88. 

Schiller,  medical  inspection 
advocated  by,  161. 

Schmid-Monnard :  illness  of 
children  attending  both 
school  sessions,  103;  in- 
crease in  weight,  81;  inves- 
tigations      by,       regarding 


physique  of  mentally  defcn-- 
tive,  79;  sleep  of  children 
in  Halle,  130. 

Schmidt  (Dresden),  experi- 
ments l)y,  on  airing,  34. 

Schmidt,  F.  A.:  ])hysi()logical 
value  of  exercise  studietl  by, 
118;  ])hysique  of  school 
children  investigated  by,  79. 

Schoolliouse:  at  Viroflay, 
l''raiice,  17;  construction  of, 
11;  drying  of,  12;  for  use  of 
other  than  school  i)urpo.scs, 
73;  location,  with  respect  to 
compass  of,  7;  plans,  16-18; 
j)Ian  of  Danish,  13;  j)lan  of 
London,  14;  plan  of  Frank- 
fort, 15;  planning  and  erec- 
tion of,  1 ;  rural,  3;  site  of,  2. 

Schotten,  medical  inspection 
advocated  by,  161. 

Schubert:  desk  guide  for  writ- 
ing by,  115;  on  medical 
inspection,  168;  rules  by, 
concerning  print,  107.  110. 

Schvdthess,  position  of  spine 
in  sitting  recommended  by, 
53. 

Schuyten:  measurement  of 
fatigue  by,  77;  study  by, 
regarding  attention,  137. 

Scoliosis  (see  Spinal  Curva- 
ture). 

Seat,  of  school  desk,  51. 

Secondary  schools:  children 
of,  a  selected  group,  79; 
coeducation  in,  82;  corporal 
l)iHiishment  in,  135;  curri- 
culum in,  hygienically  dis- 
cussed, 87-88;  homework  in, 
124;  hygiene  instruction  in, 
149;  medical  inspection  in, 
101,  music  lessons  taken  by 
students  of,  127;  nervous 
disturbances  in,  131;  sleep 
obtained  by  pupils  in,  130; 
.suicides  in,  135;  use  of  alco- 
hol by  students  of,  151. 


186 


INDEX 


Seller,  quoted  on  absorption 
of  light  by  window  panes, 
24. 

Sewing,  hygienic  requirements 
for,  116. 

Sex  liygiene,  discussion  of, 
152-153. 

Sexual  irregularities :  among 
vmsupervised  children  after 
school,  132;  due  to  reten- 
tion, 67;  due  to  too  long 
sitting,  97;  in  relation  to 
corporal  punishment,  133, 
134;  rapid  spread  of,  in 
boarding  schools,  142. 

Shades:  for  direct  lighting,  28; 
for  windows,  25. 

Sickinger,  care  of  subnormal 
children  studied  by,  81. 

Sickneiss:  among  pupils  of  the 
one-  and  the  two-session 
day,  103;  as  an  effect  of 
too  much  homework,  125; 
greatest  in  March  and  April, 
138;  of  children  in  second- 
ary schools,  83,  131. 

Singing,  hj^gienic  significance 
of,  122. 

Sites:  for  schoolhouse,  2,  7; 
restriction  of,  4. 

Sitting,  unhygienic  effect  of 
long,  46. 

Slate,  disadvantages  of  the, 
109. 

Sleep,  need  of  sufficient,  91, 
130. 

Snyder,  designer  of  roof  play- 
ground, 62,  Fig.  32. 

Special  classes  for  defective 
children,  80,  81. 

Specialists,  for  eyes,  ears, 
nose,  and  throat,  163. 

Spinal  curvature:  caused  by 
carrying  books,  92.  Fig.  36; 
discussion  of,  157,  158;  per- 
centage among  boys  and 
girls  in  Berlin,  84. 


Stairways:  fireproof,  12;  sepa- 
rate for  janitor,  18;  width 
of,  15. 

Standing:  fatigue  caused  by, 
122;  not  a  good  form  of 
punishment,  132. 

Standing  desks,  description  of, 
47,  Fig.  20. 

Steam  heating,  discussion  of, 
40,  Fig.  17. 

Steinhaus,  investigation  by, 
regarding  illness  of  school 
children,  105. 

Sterilization  of  drinking  water, 

Stockholm,  average  attend- 
ance per  class  in,  90. 

Storey,  the  work  of,  in  New 
York,  147. 

Stoves,  discussion  of,  36-38. 

St.  Petersburg,  work  of  school 
phy.sicians  in,  167. 

Subjects,  order  of,  in  curricu- 
lum, 101,  102. 

Subnormal    children,    discus- 

^  sion  of,  79,  80,  158,  159. 

Suggestibility,  of  girls  in  com- 
parison with  boys,  86. 

Suicides,  of  school  children, 
135. 

Sundays,  desirability  of  no 
work  on,  139. 

Sunlight,  influence  of,  7, 
18. 

Sweden,  investigation  regard- 
ing the  sleep  of  secondary 
school  children  in,  130. 

Swedish  gymna.stics,  general 
use  of,  118. 

Sweeping,  not  to  be  done 
shortly  before  school,  33. 

Swimming  pools,  for  school 
children,  65. 

Switzerland,  corporal  punish- 
ment in,  134. 

Syncope,  produced  by  heat, 
31. 


INDEX 


187 


Talk  pauses,    inaugurated   l)y 

Moliaupt,  96. 
Teacher:  ailditional  work  for, 
caused  by  medical  inspec- 
tion, Itil;  livfiiene  of  the, 
173;  neuessity  of  a  knowl- 
edge of  school  liyffiene  for 
the,  145,  147;  overwork  of 
the,  174. 

Teljatnik.  fatigue  produced 
bv  physical  exercise  studied 
by,  120. 

Temperature,  standard,  for 
school  room,  31. 

Thorax,  development  of,  ham- 
]iered  by  bad  desks,  47. 

Tiling:  for  classroom,  44;  for 
toilets,  70. 

Tjaden,  investigation  by,  re- 
garding anemia  among  sec- 
ondary school  children,  84. 

TluchSrj  marking  for  cleanli- 
ness practised  by,  94. 

Tobacco,  discussion  of,  151. 

Toilets:  discussion  of,  67-72, 
Fig.  33;  for  gymnasium,  61. 

Tonics,  prescribed  by  school 
physician,  167. 

Top  of  desk  in  relation  to 
pupil,  51. 

Towel,  tlie  hygiene  of  the,  14. 

Training  schools,  instruction 
in  hygiene  in,  146. 

Transom,  location  of,  24. 

Transportation  of  school  chil- 
dren, 3. 

Travel,  of  children  to  and  from 
school,  3,  91,  92. 

Tuberculosis,  spread  by  dust, 
61. 

Turnen,  use  of,  in  gymnasium, 
118. 

Two-seated  desk,  prescribed 
in  Sweden,  56. 

Type,  discussion  of,  108. 

United  States:  adjustable 
desks  used  in  the,  49  co-edu- 


cation in  the,  88;  corpora 
piuiisliment  in  the,  134; 
electric  ventilation  systems 
in  the,  34;  gymnastic  appa- 
ratus in  the,  57;  law  in,  re- 
garding instruction  in  hy- 
giene, 152;  medical  in.spec- 
tion  of  schools  in,  171; 
seccmdary  schools  in  the, 
129;  school  fire  escapes  in 
the,  74;  school  nurses  in, 
166. 
Urinals,  discussion  of,  71,  72. 

Vacation  Colonies,  discus- 
sion of,  140,  141. 

Vacations,  discussion  of,  136- 
139. 

Ventilation:  combined  with 
steam  heating,  40;  discus- 
sion of,  34-36 ;  of  cloak  room, 
13;  of  dormitories,  143;  of 
schoolroom,  29;  promoted 
by  good  stoves,  36. 

Vermin,  bred  in  moist  floors, 
45. 

Vertical  writing,  discussion  of, 
111-116. 

Vienna:  morbidity  of  children 
in,  138;  vacation  camps  of, 
140. 

Villamont  school,  desks  used 
in  the,  56. 

Viroflay,  France,  school  and 
grounds  at,  17. 

Vision,  tests  for,  161. 

Voice:  culture  and  singing, 
122;  of  teacher  in  relation 
to  size  of  room,  44. 

Volatile  substances  in  expired 
air,  29. 

Waetzold,     time     spent     on 

nuisic  found  by,  127. 
Waiting   rooms,   necessity   of, 

12- 
Wales,  medical  inspection  in, 

170. 


188 


INDEX 


Walls  of  the  classroom,  -14. 

Walter,  benches  designed  by, 
57. 

Wanderschulen,  in  Scandina- 
via, 3. 

Wardrobes:  between  windows, 
24;  hallwa\-s  used  for,  13; 
used  for  recreation  space,  14. 

W^arm  days,  suspension  of 
school  on,   139. 

Water  supply:  for  shower 
baths,  64;  impure,  source  of 
disease,  8,  68. 

Weichardt:  estimation  of  fa- 
tigue by,  77;  experiments 
with  kenotoxin  by,  75. 

Weight,  gain  in,  during  vaca- 
tions, 136. 

Weiss,  statement  by,  concern- 
ing nearsightedness,  157. 

Wells,  discussion  of,  8,  9. 

Wiesbaden,  plan  of  medical 
inspection  in,  158,  168. 


Window  frames,  advantage  of 

narrow,  16,  24. 
Windows,    discussion    of,    24, 

25. 
Wingen,  photometer  by,  19. 
Women     doctors,     for     girls' 

schools,  165. 
Writing,    discussion    of,    109- 

116. 
Wiuttembcrg,    suspension    of 

school    on    warm    davs    in, 

139. 

Xylolith,  as  a  floor  covering, 
45. 

Yard,  school,  for  play,  62. 

Zirngast,  study  by,  on  ab- 
sence records,  138. 

Zollinger,  desk  series  on  cas- 
ters designed  by,  56. 

Zurich,  writing  lessons  in.  111. 


10 


yy%M 


UC  SOUTHERr^  nrCIONAL  LIBRARY  f  AGILITY 


AA    000  714  961    0 


LOS  ANGELES 
STATE  N0R;N-1A!    ^^mqq^ 


■I 


m 


mi 


"ii  pi 


nil  h 


■illllil 


'iii 


illil 


liii 


III 


III! 


'"Ill'ibii 

;il  illi 


iii  I 


m 


